Parental Incarceration in Childhood and Adult Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration: Race/Ethnicity and Sex Differences

• Published date: 01 November 2023
• DOI: http://doi.org/10.1177/00938548231202801
• Author: Rosalyn D. Lee,Feijun Luo
• Date: 01 November 2023
• Subject Matter: Articles

CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND BEHAVIOR, 2023, Vol. 50, No. 11, November 2023, 1661 –1678.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/00938548231202801

Article reuse guidelines: sagepub.com/journals-permissions

© 2023 International Association for Correctional and Forensic Psychology

1661

PARENTAL INCARCERATION IN CHILDHOOD

AND ADULT INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE

PERPETRATION:

Race/Ethnicity and Sex Differences

ROSALYN D. LEE

FEIJUN LUO

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Few studies have examined associations between parental incarceration (PI) and violence perpetration in adulthood. We used

Wave I and Wave IV of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health to investigate such associations with

intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration. Exposure to PI was found significantly associated with increased risk of all IPV

perpetration behaviors in adulthood, except forced sex. The association of PI exposure with issuing threats, pushing, and

throwing objects did not differ by race/ethnicity or sex. Associations of PI exposure with slapping, hitting, or kicking and

injuring a partner were stronger for non-Hispanic White persons than for non-Hispanic Black persons. Differing patterns of

elevated violence risk in adults with PI history suggest tailored preventive strategies may be of value.

Keywords: parental incarceration; intimate partner violence; perpetration; race/ethnicity; sex

A

small number of studies have indicated that parental incarceration (PI) is associated with

general violent behaviors in young adulthood (Lee & Luo, 2023; Muftic & Smith, 2018).

Gaps, however, exist with respect to the association between PI in childhood and specific

forms of violence in adulthood, such as intimate partner violence (IPV), and whether such

associations differ by race/ethnicity or sex. It is particularly important to understand the

implications of the interaction of incarceration and partner violence for children given that

AUTHORS’ NOTE: The authors have no conflicts of interest to report. This research did not receive any

specific grant funding from agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. The findings and

conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position of the

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Correspondence concerning this article should be

addressed to Rosalyn D. Lee, Division of Violence Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and

Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 4770 Buford Highway, NE, MS S106-10, Atlanta, GA

30341; e-mail: rdl3@cdc.gov.

1202801CJBXXX10.1177/00938548231202801Criminal Justice and BehaviorLee, Luo / Parental Incarceration and IPV Perpetration

research-article2023

1662 CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND BEHAVIOR

one in seven Americans is partnered with someone with a history of incarceration (Enns

et al., 2019), and research suggests rates of partner violence among incarcerated and reenter-

ing individuals and their partners are higher than rates in the general population (McKay

et al., 2018; Wildeman, 2012). The current study addresses some of these research gaps.

Although the literature on PI has been growing rapidly over the last couple of decades, it

does not include studies that examine associations between a parent’s history of incarcera-

tion and a respondent’s later IPV perpetration behavior. A related literature on adverse

childhood experiences (ACEs), which includes household member with an incarceration

history (HMI) as an adversity, has found mixed results with respect to the relationship

between HMI and later IPV perpetration. Roberts and colleagues (2011) found that a sig-

nificant association between HMI and IPV for both males and females in bivariate analyses

became non-significant in adjusted models. Lee and colleagues (2022) did not include a

multivariate model that specifically assessed the association between HMI and later IPV in

their analyses, but found a significant, though counterintuitive association between the

measures in bivariate analyses. Nikulina and colleagues (2021) tested a multivariate model

and found a significant association between HMI and perpetration of physical aggression.

Given limited findings in the PI literature and mixed findings in the ACEs literature, addi-

tional studies that utilize multivariate models and specifically investigate relationships

between respondent report of childhood PI and later IPV behaviors can help address impor-

tant gaps related to impacts of exposure to PI.

Stressful life events have a range of negative consequences for families (McCubbin

et al., 1983). Incarceration, characterized as a life event or a chronic stressor, can have sig-

nificant and stressful impacts on relational, economic, and other aspects of family life dur-

ing and after a parent’s incarceration (Foster & Hagan, 2013; Turney, 2014). Individuals

who have experienced incarceration often face a number of informal and formal sanctions

(Council of State Governments Justice Center, 2021) and destabilizing interactions with

power structures (Garcia-Hallett, 2019). These challenges or postincarceration barriers may

inhibit normal functioning. Additional household stressors may be created as a result of try-

ing to navigate such barriers. Elevated household stress may in turn lead to elevated risk of

family violence. Research indicates that exposure to family violence can negatively affect

children’s long-term behaviors and relationships. Both direct (physical and sexual abuse;

Fang & Corso, 2007; McKinney et al., 2009) and indirect exposure (parental IPV; Ehrensaft

et al., 2003; McKinney et al., 2009) to family violence have been found associated with

later intimate partner aggression.

In addition to elevated stressors in families affected by incarceration, research also indi-

cates that a parent’s childhood experiences may elevate risk of a child’s violence exposure

and hence later behaviors. Individuals with incarceration histories are more likely to have

experienced ACEs (Henry, 2020), such as childhood physical abuse, sexual abuse, and

childhood witnessing of parental IPV. A parent’s exposure to ACEs increases their likeli-

hood of victimization and perpetration which subsequently increases their own child’s

exposure to such ACEs. Research also indicates that certain subgroups, such as female

prisoners, are more likely than never incarcerated women to be disproportionately exposed

to ACEs during childhood and at greater risk of IPV victimization as adults (Jones et al.,

2018). Thus, parents who experience incarceration are at increased risk of having an ACE

history which may increase their risk of violence victimization and perpetration in adult

relationships and their children’s risk of witnessing such violence. This aligns with findings