Parent Education: What We Know and Moving Forward for Greatest Impact

• Published date: 01 July 2020
• Author: Amanda Sheffield Morris,Jens E. Jespersen,Kelly T. Cosgrove,Erin L. Ratliff,Kara L. Kerr
• Date: 01 July 2020
• DOI: http://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12442

A S M  J E. JOklahoma State University

K T. CUniversity of Tulsa

E L. R  K L. KOklahoma State University

Parent Education: What We Know and Moving

Forward for Greatest Impact

The available literature on parent education is

growing rapidly.With numerous sources indicat-

ing that quality parenting is one of the best pre-

dictors of one’s developmental trajectory across

the lifespan, it has become increasingly neces-

sary to identify the most effective programs and

tools for supporting parenting skills and promot-

ing positive child development. In this article, we

describe key aspects of the best evidence-based

practices in the current parent education liter-

ature, including program implementation, pro-

gram content, common themes, and an overview

of some of the most promising parent education

programs available for early childhood, middle

childhood, and adolescence. Conclusions and

suggestions for future work and applications are

also discussed.

Parent education is one of the most common

approaches to prevent child maltreatment and

promote family functioning and child develop-

ment (Barth & Liggett-Creel, 2014). Research

indicates that quality parenting is one of the

best predictors of successful development, and

the parent-child relationship sets the foundation

Department of Human Development and Family Sciences,

Oklahoma State University, 2116 Main Hall, Tulsa, OK

74106 (amanda.morris@okstate.edu).

KeyWords: adolescence, early childhood, middle childhood,

parent education, parenting.

for children’s learning, social and emotional

development, as well as healthy adult relation-

ships (Morris et al., 2013; Morris et al., 2017;

Vandell etal., 2010). Increasingly, studies point

also to caregiving inuences of biology and

health (e.g., epigenetics research, brain imaging

studies) suggesting the critical role that parent-

ing plays in the lives of families across genera-

tions, as well as the devastating effects of harsh

and neglectful parenting on neurological devel-

opment (Hays-Grudo & Morris, 2020; Teicher

& Samson, 2016). Thus, it is critical for parents

to have basic caregiving knowledge and access

to high-quality parenting programs that are

evidence based. Recent reviews of the empirical

literature on parenting point to a number of the

most useful program components and effective

delivery methods (Barth & Liggett-Creel, 2014;

Kaminski et al., 2008; Perumbilly et al., 2017).

In this article, we begin with a discussion

of general parenting concepts, best practices in

program implementation, and core content typ-

ically included in high-quality, evidence-based

programs. We dene high-quality programs as

having curricula developed for specic child

and family outcomes (e.g., reduced problem

behaviors, parenting efcacy, effective disci-

pline), requiring training and certication for

leaders, and demonstrating effectiveness in more

than one published empirical study. In the next

section, we highlight model programs across

development and specic age groups (i.e., early

childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence).

520Family Relations 69 (July 2020): 520–542

DOI:10.1111/fare.12442

Parent Education521

Weend the article with a discussion of next steps

in parent education, with a focus on a public

health approach to parent education as a pri-

mary tool for preventing child maltreatment and

promoting positive development across contexts

(see also Morris, Robinson, et al., 2017).

D  C

What is good parenting? The existence of parent

education programs suggests that there is an

ideal or “good” parent, although conceptions

of parenting vary across cultures (Selin, 2013).

A meta-analysis (Bostrom, 2002) examining

common conceptions of what makes a good

parent indicate several common aspects, includ-

ing understanding that children are shaped

by both relationships and their environment;

understanding the role parents play in their

child’s brain development from birth or even

before; the belief that emotional closeness with

one’s baby can contribute to intellectual devel-

opment; and understanding the role of play in

social, intellectual, and language development.

Additionally, this meta-analysis revealed that

the majority of adults (95%) regard “being

a good parent” as one of the most important

priorities in life and that 75% did not feel

well prepared for parenthood when they had

their rst child, a nding further illustrating

the importance of parent education for new

parents (Bostrom, 2002). A meta-analysis

of characteristics indicative of effective par-

enting highlighted key behaviors, including

reacting positively to children’s behavior,

using nonviolent discipline techniques, proac-

tively preventing the occurrence of disruptive

behavior, investing in a positive parent–child

relationship, active listening, understanding the

need for parental self-care, and understanding

the child’s social and emotional needs (Leijten

et al., 2019). These behaviors and related skills

are common across many parent education

programs and are discussed further throughout

this review.

Parent education can be dened as a ser-

vice to parents with the goal of improving

parenting skills, the parent–child relationship,

and communication with children (see the

California Evidence-Based Clearinghouse for

Child Welfare [CEBC], 2018). Parent education

programs often aim to prevent child abuse and

neglect and to reduce disruptive behaviors by

improving a variety of skills and strengthening

the parent–child relationship. More intensive

treatments and programs are often needed

when emotional and behavioral problems are

severe, and programs can focus on a variety

of caregivers, such as grandparents raising

grandchildren.

It is important to note that parenting needs

depend largely on current stressors and vulner-

abilities, and caregivers’ perceptions of their

child’s development and health likely affect

program engagement. Indeed, there may be

circumstances, such as times of transition, when

parents feel more open to seeking parenting or

child development information from outside

sources. From a family systems perspective,

parent education programs need to be dynamic

and adaptive to address the various needs of the

parent and family at a particular point in time

(Cowan & Cowan, 2006; Henry, Morris, & Har-

rist, 2015). Notably too, children bring their own

temperaments, attachment styles, and behav-

ioral tendencies to the parent–child relationship,

and many parents seek programs to address

children’s behavior problems, particularly

externalizing behavior (McClellan, Kowatch,

& Findling, 2007; Mingebach, Kamp-Becker,

Christiansen, & Weber, 2018). Research indi-

cates that children’s behaviors most commonly

targeted in parent education programs include

disruptive behavior, conduct problems, hyper-

activity, internalizing problems (e.g. anxiety,

depressive symptoms), and prosocial develop-

ment (Menting, de Castro, & Matthys, 2013;

Mingebachet al.,2018;Wilsonet al.,2012).

Thus, in our review, we include child outcomes

and broad goals of specic programs.

P I  C

Identifying best practices and delivery meth-

ods associated with effective parent education

programs is an area of interest for many

child development and family life specialists.

Within the parenting intervention literature,

four tiers or domains can be observed when

considering the potential of a parenting inter-

vention’s effectiveness: (a) information sharing,

(b) self-awareness/belief-insight change, (c)

skill-building, and (d) applied problem-solving.

Programs put various levels of emphasis on

each domain, but intervention goals that align

with these four domains tend to have positive

outcomes (Fine, 1989, p. 7; Fine & Brownstein,

1983).