Not for the Faint of Heart: Assessing Physical Violence and Psychological Abuse against U.S. Mayors

• Author: Sue Thomas,Marcia L. Godwin,Rebekah Herrick,Eveline Gnabasik,Jean R. Schroedel,Lori D. Franklin
• Date: 01 March 2019
• Published date: 01 March 2019
• DOI: 10.1177/0160323X19858133
• Subject Matter: Governance Matters

Governance Matters
State and Local Government Review
2019, Vol. 51(1) 57-67
Not for the Faint of Heart:
ª The Author(s) 2019
Article reuse guidelines:
Assessing Physical Violence
sagepub.com/journals-permissions
DOI: 10.1177/0160323X19858133
and Psychological Abuse
journals.sagepub.com/home/slg
against U.S. Mayors
Sue Thomas1 , Rebekah Herrick2, Lori D. Franklin3,
Marcia L. Godwin4, Eveline Gnabasik5 and Jean R. Schroedel6
Abstract
Despite evidence of abuse and violence against U.S. elected officeholders at the federal, state, and
local levels, to date, no political science research has investigated the frequency, channels, and
correlates of this phenomenon. Here, we surveyed mayors in U.S. cities with populations above
30,000 and found that mayors face physical violence and psychological abuse at rates equal to or
greater than the general workforce, social media are the most common channels of these actions,
and mayors in all types of cities experience violence and abuse. Nevertheless, mayors who are
younger, female, in strong mayor systems, and in larger cities were more likely to be affected than
their counterparts. Finally, with the exception of gender, the factors associated with greater like-
lihood of psychological abuse are not the same factors associated with experiences of physical
violence.
Keywords
mayors, physical violence, psychological abuse
In late 2017, while he slept inside, Bolingbrook
1 Pacific Institute for Research and Evaluation, Santa Cruz
Illinois Mayor Roger Claar’s home was vanda-
Office, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
2
lized with messages spray-painted on his gar-
Department
of
Political
Science,
Oklahoma
State
University, Stillwater, OK, USA
age, driveway, door, and mailbox calling him
3 Anne and Henry Zarrow School of Social Work,
a “Nazi scum” and “Trump lover” (Sarver
University of Oklahoma - Tulsa, Tulsa, OK, USA
2019). In March 2019, Achille, Oklahoma
4 Department of Public Administration, La Verne Univer-
Mayor David Northcutt was assaulted and left
sity, La Verne, CA, USA
5
bloodied and with two black eyes because of
School of Politics and Economics, Claremont Graduate
University, Claremont, CA, USA
his sexual orientation (Smith 2019). In the con-
6 Department of Politics and Policy, Claremont Graduate
text of polarized U.S. politics, these recent
University, Claremont, CA, USA
examples of physical violence (physical harm
suffered to person or property) and psychologi-
Corresponding Author:
Sue Thomas, Pacific Institute for Research and Evaluation,
cal abuse (exposure to threatening or disre-
Santa Cruz Office, P.O. Box 7042, Santa Cruz, CA 95061,
spectful, uninvited behavior, attention, or
USA.
verbal contact) toward mayors raise the
Email: thomas@pire.org

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58
State and Local Government Review 51(1)
question of the commonness of such violence
Why Violence/Abuse toward Mayors
and abuse (V/A).
Matters for Local Governance
Although the life-threatening shootings of
Representative Gabrielle Giffords in 2011 and
Three types of effects on governance indicate a
Representative Steve Scalise in 2017 produced
need to better understand the scope of V/A
days of round-the-clock media coverage and
toward mayors. First, these acts may have seri-
significant debate about the safety of national-
ous effects on victims (Franklin and Herrick
2018). For example, Every-Palmer, Barry-
level elected officials (see, e.g., Arizona Daily
Walsh, and Pathe´ (2015) found that most New
Star 2011; Williams, Moe, and Ortiz 2017),
Zealand politicians, their families, and staff
both media professionals and political scientists
members who experienced harassment felt
have focused less on the V/A faced by local
fearful, and approximately 10 percent changed
mayors and the possible effects of it on local
their behaviors as a result. Several U.S. studies
governance.
of general workplace violence/abuse indicate
The importance of understanding the scope
that these types of experiences can harm work-
of V/A toward mayors—as well as other
ers’ productivity by depleting cognitive energy,
elected officials—is clear because such acts
reducing the ability to focus (Hershcovis and
may affect their mind-set and performance
Barling 2012), and increasing the possibility
while in office and may reduce mayors’ interest
of work withdrawal (Henderson and Van Has-
in continued public service. There may also be
selt 2017; Hackney and Perrewe 2018, 85).
time and budgetary effects for cities as local
Second, experiences of V/A may deter sit-
law enforcement personnel are drawn into pro-
ting officeholders from remaining in office and
viding investigations and security.
may deter others from seeking public office in
Drawing on data from an original survey of
the first place (Schlesinger 1966; Rohde
mayors in U.S. cities with populations above
1979; Fowler and McClure 1990; Kazee
30,000, this article begins to fill this gap in our
1994; Moncrief, Squire, and Jewell 2001).
knowledge about local governance by pursuing
Third, the effects of V/A against mayors
three aims:
may affect local security costs and law enforce-
ment efforts. If local law enforcement must
examination of the types and frequency
investigate threats or offer security protection
of physical violence and psychological
to those who have been credibly threatened,
abuse experienced by U.S. mayors,
budgets and staffing may be strained. For
exploration of the extent to which social
example, due to the frequency and intensity
media are channels for the phenomenon,
of protests, the costs to protect the mayor of
and
Portland have increased from US$175,811 to
analysis of the factors that affect V/A.
US$847,034 in just two years (Friedman
2018). And, for every instance of protection
Inspired by a 2016 Inter-Parliamentary
of public officials or investigation into threats,
Union study that revealed a serious problem
efforts to wider public protection may be
of violence and harassment against parliamen-
compromised.
tarians around the world, we chose mayors as
the focus of our study for three reasons: mayors
Background Literature
live full time in their communities, which may
make them more visible and accessible than
As noted, no previous systematic research
other officials; as executives, mayors may be
exists on the forms, frequency, and factors con-
perceived as more accountable for actions of
tributing to violence/abuse suffered among
city government than council members; and
mayors. This study draws on three areas in
there are sufficient numbers of mayors to ana-
which V/A research is more developed: com-
lyze results quantitatively.
parative politics, V/A in the U.S. workforce,

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Thomas et al.
59
Table 1. Definitions Used for Physical Violence and
Existing research also provides a sense of
Psychological Abuse.
how frequently V/A occurs in the general
U.S. workforce and the factors that drive them.
Violence/Abuse Type
Definition
Because of the publicly facing role of mayors,
Physical
Minor
Being slapped,
among the types of workplace V/A identified
violence
violence
pushed, or subject
by Henderson and Van Hasselt (2017, 539),
to projectiles
we are interested in those that are “initiated
Significant
Being shot, assaulted,
by arguments or angry reactions of a client or
violence
or otherwise
patron over the service or some other precipi-
injured
tating event.” Hence, in the following discus-
Property
The mayor’s
violence
property, such as
sion, we focus on the findings from research
homes, vehicles,
on V/A against workers perpetrated by the
and campaign signs,
public.
was damaged or
Significant research on V/A in the general
destroyed
U.S. and specific public-sector workplace gives
Psychological
Harassment
Exposure to insistent
an idea of the levels and types of V/A to expect
abuse
and uninvited
among mayors. Additionally, research shows
behavior,
attention, or verbal
that younger workers, less experienced work-
contact
ers, and workers with higher levels of public
Public
Seeing oneself or
exposure are particularly vulnerable. Social
demeaning
one’s family in
media also play a key role in directing V/A
images of or
toward targets. Below, we summarize the find-
experienced
ings of this literature on the frequency of V/A,
disrespectful
the role of social media in perpetuating it, and
comments in social
media, traditional
the factors that make V/A more likely.
media or at a public
meeting
Frequency of physical violence and psychological
Threats
Threats of death,
abuse in the U.S. workforce. U.S. workers and
rape, beating,
government workers experience V/A fairly fre-
abduction, or
quently, and mayors, given their visibility, may
similar act
face similar or higher rates of violence/abuse.
Source for variables and definitions: Inter-Parliamentary Union
The literature suggests that psychological abuse
(2016).
is more common than physical violence
(Fischer, Van Reemst, and De Jong 2016;
Schat, Frone, and Kelloway 2006; Baron and
and V/A among social media users in the gen-
Neuman 1996) and this is borne out by data
eral population.
on V/A in the general U.S. workforce and gov-
First, to develop clear definitions and mea-
ernment workers. A recent national survey
surements of V/A, we took guidance from com-
shows that 41 percent of U.S. workers experi-
parative political science literature (see, e.g.,
enced psychological abuse (behavior meant to
...