Nonviolent Jihad: The Framework of Nonviolent Action in Islam.

• Author: Ninowy, Muhammad bin Yahya Al-

The role of Islam in advocating nonviolence and nonviolent methods of achieving sociopolitical reforms has been scarcely studied. The intersection of Islam and nonviolence is an ostensible paradox, as Islam is perceived by many as conducive to violence or authoritarianism. Muslim-majority countries have disproportionately higher rates of authoritarianism. Additionally, most wars since the turn of the twenty-first century have occurred in Muslim-majority countries (Kuru 2019; Gleditsch and Rudolfsen 2016). Some intellectuals have attributed the overrepresentation of violence and authoritarianism to Islam itself, stating that it inherently poses boundaries against democratic values (Huntington 1996; Lewis 2003). An extensive corresponding literature has emerged critiquing violent perceptions of Islam. This literature has illustrated Islam's treatment of the sanctity of life, nonviolence, and nonviolent action and has offered alternative explanations for excessive conflict in Muslim-majority countries (E. Said 1981; Esposito 1992; Abu-Nimer 2001, Jackson 2002; AbuKhalil 2004; Tabassum 2019; Kuru 2019; Akyol 2021).

Western academic scholars typically study Islam from a historical lens, in terms of interpreting both Islamic text and Muslim behavior. The historical lens allows us to study the evolution and diversity of Muslim interpretations and political arrangements as they have occurred. Specifically, they reveal the abundance of peaceful interpretations and fundamentalist manipulation of Islam for ideological purposes (Esposito 2002; Goodman 2003; Hafez 2003). Additionally, they present various cases where Muslims utilized nonviolent methods and nonviolent action in seeking sociopolitical reform (see, for example, Stephan 2009; Kurtz 2011; Halverson 2012). The problem with the Western academic approach is that it has a limited effect in persuading current Muslim scholars and laypeople to revise their thinking because it does not directly engage with what Islamic text really means.

We work within the traditional stream of scholarship on nonviolence, building on the work of two Muslim intellectuals, Jawdat Said and Said Nursi (J. Said 1993; Abu-Nimer 2001; Sayilgan 2019). Abu-Nimer (2001) stated that the Islamic tradition is full of potential resources addressing social and political conflicts that have not yet been realized. These resources emphasize the importance of peace and nonviolence and require astute scholars familiar with the tradition to extract their insights properly. We have accepted his charge. We offer traditional theoretical foundations for nonviolent action by extensive reference to the Quran and authentic Prophetic tradition, as one of the authors, Muhammad Al-Ninowy, is a traditional Islamic scholar. Nonviolent action is a broad category of behaviors that can result in political, economic, or social change through peaceful actions (Sharp 1973, 1994, 2005, 2013; Ackerman and DuVall 2000; Chenoweth and Stephan 2011). Despite the potential for an Islamic model for nonviolence in the Quran and in the Sunnah--authentic Prophetic tradition--voices pushing the nonviolence narrative are marginalized. We seek to fill the gap and offer an Islamic model of nonviolent action.

We proceed as follows. The next section discusses the theoretical foundations of nonviolence in Islam from Quranic verses and the authentic tradition of the Prophet Muhammad. We then discuss the definition of jihad in the Islamic tradition, highlighting that nonviolent action fits the definition and is encouraged over violent defensive methods barring direct existential threats. The following section explores why nonviolent action is superior to violence according to the Islamic framework, emphasizing the social benefits of nonviolence. The fifth section concludes.

Foundations of Nonviolence in Islam

The Quran offers five foundations for the principle of nonviolence in Islam. The first foundation is set at the very beginning of humanity, when God informs the angels that He is creating Adam (Quran, 2:30): "Behold, Your Lord said to the angels: 'I will create a successor on earth.' They said: 'Will You place therein one who will make mischief therein and shed blood while we do celebrate Your praises and glorify Your holy (name)?' He said: 'I know what you know not.'" The first warning against violence is given to humankind even before its creation. Although the warning came from angels, God inscribed the warning eternally in the Quran, making it a transient principle.

The second foundation is set right after the creation of Adam, when God commanded the angels to prostrate to Adam. All of them did except Iblis, or Satan, who said, "I am nobler than he. You created me from fire and created him from clay. God commanded, 'Then get out of Paradise, for you are truly cursed'" (Quran 38: 76-77). The result of Satan's essentialist judgment of his own superiority over Adam based on the material they were created from, along with his stubborn rejection of God's order, was banishment from God's mercy. A critical point from these verses is Satan's opinion that fire is superior to clay, even though clay constructs and fire destroys. The verses above point to the human ability of construction as what uniquely sets them apart from other creations, not their ability to engage in violence and destruction.

The third foundation of nonviolence is provided in the story of Abel and Cain. The verses below display the origin of the violent logic, born out of envy and greed, that was humankind's debut in sin:

Relate to them in truth the story of Adam's two sons--how each offered a sacrifice [to God]: Abel's offering was accepted while Cain's was not. So, Cain threatened, "I will kill you!" His brother replied, "God only accepts [the offering] of the sincerely devout. If you raise your hand to kill me, I will not raise mine to kill you because I fear God--the Lord of all worlds." (Quran 5:27-28)

The logic of "I will kill you!" starting with Cain is the motto of tyrants and criminals of every age. So much so that the world has become a prisoner of the logic of power as opposed to the power of logic. (1) The verses contain the appropriate way to respond to the logic of power, with the power of logic, as Abel reasons with his brother, as if to say: "Why would you want to kill me? God's acceptance of my sacrifice is not my fault; it was merely my sincerity." Abel also explains that he would not reciprocate threat with threat or violence with violence, stating that he fears God and implying that reciprocation is evil. His belief in a hereafter barred him from the exchange of even a threat of violence. The story presents that nonviolence is not passive, as the Quran does not teach passivity and submission to evil or violence. It teaches reciprocating destruction with construction, and resistance through seeking to change people's attitudes without shedding blood.

The fourth foundation of nonviolence follows Abel's response, citing how prophets responded to their people's threats. The prophetic approach to reform has always prioritized appeals to moral faculties. Prophet Abraham's monotheistic call was met with threats from his father to stone him (Quran 19:41-46). In response, Prophet Abraham said: "Peace be upon you! I will pray to my Lord for your forgiveness. He has truly been Most Gracious to me" (Quran 19:47). Similar violent threats were faced by Prophet Abraham on other occasions (Quran 29:24), Prophet Noah (Quran 26:116-18), Prophet Lot (Quran 7:24, 26:167), and Prophet Shu'aib (Quran 7:88-89), all of whom responded with nonthreatening appeals to reason. Prophet Moses's call to Pharoah, a tyrant who had slaughtered many men, women, and children among Moses's tribe, was also characterized by gentleness. Relating the story of Moses, God said to Moses in the Quran (20:44-47):

Speak to him gently, so perhaps he may be mindful [of Me] or fearful [of My punishment]." They both pleaded, "Our Lord! We fear that he may be quick to harm us or act tyrannically." God reassured [them], "Have no fear! I am with you, hearing and seeing. So go to him and say, 'Indeed we are both messengers from your Lord, so let the Children of Israel go with us, and do not oppress them. We have come to you with a sign from your Lord. And salvation will be for whoever follows the [right] guidance. Prophet Joseph was unjustly thrown in prison for many years based on a lie. When he was released from prison and gained enormous power in Egyptian society, he never sought to use his ability to get revenge on those who oppressed him, as vengeance is incompatible with Islam.

Finally, the fifth foundation represents a broad emphasis on eradicating violence and encouraging the principles that call for peace and nonviolence. In Islam, God is the caller to peaceableness: "And God calls [all] to the abode of peace and guides whomever He wills to the Straight Path." The call is practical as God commands believers to enter peace in all physical, mental, and...