"No habia humanidad": Critiquing English Monolingualism and Other Entwined Systems of White Supremacy in Local Emergency Management Responses.

• Author: de Onis, Catalina M.

Members of the Salem, Oregon, community experienced two public health advisories during the spring and summer of 2018, when the city's water supply, Detroit Reservoir, tested positive for cyanotoxins. Released in blue-green algae blooms, the presence of these toxins is linked to climate disruption, as these bacteria are more likely to appear with high water temperatures and pH levels and excess nutrients (e.g., chemical and animal waste and fertilizer runoff). (1) Blooms are more frequent than assumed, and many go undetected until visible, when contamination is already underway. In May 2018, after detecting elevated levels of cyanotoxins, City of Salem officials declared the water unsafe to drink for "vulnerable populations" (i.e., children under the age of six, pregnant people, the elderly, those with liver problems or already compromised immune systems, and pets), following Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) standards. Many local residents responded with frustration, given the passage of several days between the first detection of cyanotoxins (May 23) and the city's public emergency alert notification on the evening of May 29 (see figure 1), which ambiguously and alarmingly warned: "Civil Emergency ... Prepare for Action" (Bach 2018b). (2)

This English-only message reached at least three different counties and aired on local TV stations. Thirty-one minutes elapsed before a corrected text was sent, as seen in figure 3 (Novak Consulting Group 2018). Shortly after city officials issued the "Do Not Drink" water advisory, Oregon Governor Kate Brown declared a "state of emergency" and coordinated with the Oregon Military Department's National Guard to organize and oversee water distribution sites (Bach 2018a). Although this first advisory lasted a few days, officials issued a second advisory that spanned early June to early July, based on water samples and concerns with potential health harms for "vulnerable" people and pets. These advisories caused stress and confusion for many individuals in Salem, primarily because this public health problem, at its core, exemplified a "communication crisis," as reported by the city- commissioned Novak Consulting Group's (2018, 1) After-Action Assessment.

At this point, this narrative provides a generalized description of events; however, the differential, inequitable, and underreported impacts of these advisories merit attention. Although the City of Salem disseminated information about cyanotoxins and other resources, including regularly posting test results and updates to its website in English and sometimes Spanish, municipal and other affiliated actors failed to provide adequate multilingual resources using culturally appropriate forms of communication to best support non-English-speaking community members. Many people faced barriers to accessing both relevant information and potable drinking water, as they did not encounter easily understandable information in their preferred language or mode of communication. More than 20 percent of Salem's nearly 175,000 residents speak a language other than English, one of many demographic realities that we delve into later in this essay. (3)

Many individuals and families did not have the means necessary to access water at the distribution sites because of limited public transportation and time, among other constraints. For example, when several emergency management officials visited the authors' university classes, they recalled a rule restricting how much water each vehicle could take from distribution sites (based on the faulty assumption that one vehicle equals one family) that had to be adapted because multiple Latinx (4) family representatives carpooled using one vehicle. When issues of accessibility are seen from an intersectional framework (i.e., considering both language barriers and socioeconomic status), it becomes clear that availability of both informational and material resources was lacking. Additionally, community members experienced the forced militarization of their city, as emergency managers, some of whom have military backgrounds, directed messaging, water distribution, and other operations, alongside National Guard members.

This essay seeks to build a case, in conversation with existing community-based and scholarly critiques, for challenging dominant emergency management approaches. The Salem situation is, in many ways, not unique. For example, studying Hurricane Maria in Puerto Rico and the water crisis in Flint, Michigan, among many other injustices, can shed light on "the emergency manager effect," constituted by colonial logics, racial capitalism, and neoliberal austerity measures that create and aggravate these unnatural disasters (Onis 2018, 2; see also Llorens et al. 2018, Pulido 2016). (5) In studying these impacts, every place and situation must be understood on its own terms to avoid replicating a colonial one-size-fits-all orientation. Arturo Escobar (2006, 132) argues that "glocality means that everything is local and global, to be sure, but not global and local in the same way ... place-based resistance and practices [are needed] to reconfigure the world according to different parameters and concerns. "Though there are notable differences between the Puerto Rico and Flint cases, there are also similarities, which we outline in a subsequent section, revealing top-down, undemocratic practices and policies that further disadvantage people with long histories of dispossession, including the Spanish-speaking, Latinx community in Salem (Llorens 2019, Onis 2018, Pulido 2016, Ranganathan 2016).

In conversation with other water-related situations, which notably carried far greater consequences than this cyanotoxins case, this essay raises several questions: How did Spanish-speaking, Latinx community members experience the water advisories, and how did they navigate uncertainties? How can emergency management officials make science communication about cyanobacteria and other public health risks accessible to local residents from a variety of cultural and linguistic backgrounds? What possibilities exist for university, government, and community collaborations, especially relating to current problems with emergency management communication?

Drawing on a collaboratively composed archive and fieldwork in the form of structured interviews and the authors' lived experiences, this article features testimonios (6) (testimonials) from Salem's Spanish-speaking, Latinx residents and argues that this water situation demonstrates the need to challenge public health and emergency management communication and other practices that enact and exacerbate existing inequities and injustices. We contend that City of Salem officials and their emergency management colleagues violated the non-English-speaking public's right to know, or "the ability to have access to relevant information" (Pezzullo & Cox 2018, 368), as a monolingual bias caused misunderstandings about what was happening, who was at risk, and resource issues. Though the city has taken some positive steps since this 2018 incident, such as paying for various staff trainings and working on multilingual emergency messaging, much work remains--as evidenced in harmful, even deadly, ways during the COVID-19 pandemic. This article seeks to make several interventions to assist in uprooting oppressive emergency management ideologies and communication practices for more equitable, culturally and linguistically centered alternatives, including by demonstrating the potential role of university members in documenting underheard experiences and creating collaborative spaces that bridge campus, government, and community partnerships.

Water injustices linked to climate disruption (e.g., increased cyanotoxins contamination) are just one of many exigencies, as the record-breaking 2020 wildfires made obvious. In Oregon and beyond, many residents confronted the impossible situation of navigating multiple respiratory-related crises at once--often with competing public health advisories, such as being told to stay at home because of the pandemic without proper ventilation for extremely hazardous levels of wildfire smoke. (7) Additionally, earthquake risks exist throughout the globe, including mounting concerns with the impending "Big One"earthquake in the US Pacific Northwest.These issues and the impacts of the novel coronavims, as well as predicted future pandemics, enjoin studying and learning from previous and ongoing experiences to address grave injustices, relational differences and commonalities, and sustainable communication practices for emergency preparations and responses that support individual and communal well-being, rather than harm.

To critically approach these problems and possibilities, first, this essay describes the socioeconomic realities and racial politics shaping everyday life in Salem, as well as ideologies and policies that formed Oregon's white ecotopia founding and past and present environmental racism and other entwined injustices. Second, this piece triangulates disaster capitalism, risk communication, and border rhetorics to mark different bordering (i.e., exclusionary and dehumanizing) effects, which disproportionately impact non-English-speaking, racially and ethnically othered individuals and communities. Third, this article discusses methods, including a "Writing Water" research project that required undergraduates to interview residents about their experiences and then to analyze and interpret these conversations, before sharing their findings with emergency management officials. Fourth, this essay features three testimonios from Spanish-speaking, Latinx immigrants who have lived in Salem for many years. Rather than tell a victimhood narrative, we record how these residents navigated the situation from their shared and distinct positionalities. Finally, this essay concludes by discussing possibilities for disrupting oppressive emergency...