Longitudinal Relation Between General Well-Being and Self-Esteem

• DOI: 10.1177/0306624X15588773
• Author: André M. van der Laan,Ilja L. Bongers,Chijs van Nieuwenhuizen,Charlotte S. Barendregt
• Date: 01 December 2016
• Published date: 01 December 2016
• Subject Matter: Articles

588773IJOXXX10.1177/0306624X15588773
research-article2015
Article
International Journal of
Offender Therapy and
Longitudinal Relation
Comparative Criminology
2016, Vol. 60(16) 1836 –1855
Between General Well-Being
© The Author(s) 2015
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and Self-Esteem: Testing
DOI: 10.1177/0306624X15588773
ijo.sagepub.com
Differences for Adolescents
Admitted to Secure
Residential Care and After
Discharge
Charlotte S. Barendregt1*, André M. van der Laan1,
Ilja L. Bongers2,3, and Chijs van Nieuwenhuizen2,3
Abstract
This study investigated the longitudinal relation between general well-being and
self-esteem of male adolescents with severe psychiatric disorders. Moreover, the
transition out of secure residential care was studied. Adolescents (N = 172) were
assessed three times with 6 months between each assessment. The sample comprised
adolescents who were admitted throughout the entire study (n = 116) and who had
been discharged at 6/12 months follow-up (n = 56). General well-being and self-
esteem were stable concepts over time. The relation between general well-being
and self-esteem differed for both groups. Among the admitted group general well-
being positively predicted self-esteem and self-esteem negatively predicted general
well-being from Time 2 to Time 3. Among the discharged adolescents, self-esteem
at Time 1 positively predicted general well-being at Time 2 and general well-being at
Time 2 positively predicted self-esteem at Time 3. Changing social contexts, as well
as problems experienced during the transition out of secure care, might affect this
relationship.
1WODC (Research and Documentation Centre) of the Dutch Ministry of Security and Justice, The
Hague, The Netherlands
2GGzE Center for Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
3Scientific Center for Care & Welfare (Tranzo), Tilburg University, The Netherlands
*During the time that the research was conducted the affiliation of C.S. Barendregt was: Scientific Center
for Care & Welfare (Tranzo), Tilburg University, The Netherlands
Corresponding Author:
Charlotte S. Barendregt, WODC (Research and Documentation Centre) of the Dutch Ministry of
Security & Justice, P.O. Box 2030, 2500 EH Den Haag, The Netherlands.
Email: c.s.barendregt@minvenj.nl

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Barendregt et al.
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Keywords
general well-being, self-esteem, psychopathology, adolescents, secure residential
care, reciprocal relation, longitudinal study, delinquency
Introduction
Admission to secure residential care is a stressful event for adolescents and influences
their general well-being and self-esteem (Greve, Enzmann, & Hosser, 2001; Harvey,
2007). Admission requires of an adolescent to adapt to life in a new environment and
to deal with reduced feelings of safety and autonomy (Van der Laan & Eichelsheim,
2013). In addition, the transition out of secure residential care may also cause stress as
this transition requires accountability, responsibility, and self-sufficiency of adoles-
cents who have problems in multiple areas of their lives (Daining & DePanfilis, 2007).
Both general well-being and self-esteem play a role in the successful adjustment of
people during transitions into and out of institutions (Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith,
1999; Harvey, 2007; Sykes & Matza, 1957), such as secure residential care. Lower
well-being is related to maladaptive interactions with others (Furr & Funder, 1998),
whereas higher well-being is associated with decreased likelihood of using alcohol
and drugs (Zullig, Valois, Huebner, Oeltmann, & Drane, 2001) and less violent behav-
ior (MacDonald, Piquero, Valois, & Zullig, 2005). A low self-esteem also relates to
problematic externalizing behavior (Donnellan, Trzesniewski, Robins, Moffitt, &
Caspi, 2005; F. Rosenberg, Rosenberg, & McCord, 1978; M. Rosenberg, Schooler, &
Schoenbach, 1989). Adolescents who leave the structured environment of the institu-
tion experience stress (Webb & Maddox, 1986), which can contribute to a lower gen-
eral well-being and self-esteem. Especially with regard to finances, school, and living
arrangements, many adolescents experience problems during the transition from
secure care to independent living (Harder, Knorth, & Kalverboer, 2011). Nevertheless,
the effect of stressful transitions, such as leaving secure residential care, on the relation
between general well-being and self-esteem remains unclear. Thus, insight into the
general well-being and self-esteem of institutionalized adolescents, and the effect of
transitions on this relationship, is important. This is not least because these concepts
play a role in the rehabilitation process, and in adaptation to life outside secure resi-
dential care (Barendregt, Van der Laan, Bongers, & Van Nieuwenhuizen, 2012). A
better understanding of these concepts could help shape treatment and rehabilitation
programs to prevent reoffending or psychiatric relapse among adolescents discharged
from secure residential care.
General well-being and self-esteem are both global evaluations of oneself, yet
these evaluations are directed toward different parts of an individual’s life (Civitci
& Civitci, 2009; Moksnes & Espnes, 2013). General well-being refers to the expe-
rienced quality of an individual’s life as a whole (Diener, 2000; Pavot & Diener,
1993). General well-being seems to be a relatively stable concept over the life
course (Diener, 1994; Park, 2004; Suldo & Huebner, 2004). Stressful situations
have an impact on general well-being in the short term (Harvey, 2007), but people
seem to adapt quickly to new settings, a process that is not fully understood (Diener

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International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 60(16)
et al., 1999). Similarly, other stressful life events have an effect on the well-being
of adolescents, and the actual impact depends on the type of life event (Luhmann,
Hofmann, Eid, & Lucas, 2012). Self-esteem is specifically directed toward the per-
ceptions and evaluation of the individual himself (Civitci & Civitci, 2009; Moksnes
& Espnes, 2013). Although limited evidence consists pertaining to the stability and
change of self-esteem, longitudinal studies found support for self-esteem to be a
dynamic, rather than a static, construct (Baldwin & Hoffmann, 2002; Erol & Orth,
2011). Self-esteem may be affected by internal and external processes during ado-
lescence (Erol & Orth, 2011; Moksnes & Espnes, 2013; Räty, Larsson, Söderfeldt,
& Larsson, 2005).
The well-being of admitted adolescents with multiple problems has been studied
before (Biggam & Power, 1997; Harvey, 2007). Van der Laan and Eichelsheim (2013)
found that positively experienced interactions with peers and daily activities were
positively associated with the well-being of juvenile offenders. Moreover, psychopa-
thology (Adams, 1992) and inadequate coping (Ireland, Boustead, & Ireland, 2005)
are negatively related to general well-being. Transitions from independent living to
secure residential care, and the other way around, are found to be stressful and to affect
well-being. Some studies indicate that in particular the first period in secure residential
care is experienced as stressful to adolescents. This period is characterized by fear,
insecurity, and a lower general well-being (Biggam & Power, 1997). Other studies
suggested that the final period of secure residential care, characterized by the transi-
tion to independent living, is also experienced as stressful (Daining & DePanfilis,
2007; Harvey, 2007). During re-entry to the community, adolescents are faced with
new challenges and responsibilities. Particularly during the first period after discharge,
adolescents might experience difficulties as they have to get used to the absence of the
structure and supervision of the institution (Chung, Schubert, & Mulvey, 2007). The
stress that is caused by these experiences might lower their general well-being (Daining
& DePanfilis, 2007). It is important to study the general well-being of adolescents
with psychiatric problems in secure residential care, and the factors related to it, such
as self-esteem, as it is expected that general well-being is a key feature in the rehabili-
tation process.
Several studies have investigated self-esteem as a contributing factor in the
(mental) health and well-being of adolescents (Karatzias, Chouliara, Power, &
Swanson, 2006; Mann, Hosman, Schaalma, & De Vries, 2004; McGee & Williams,
2000; Trzesniewski et al., 2006). Among adolescents in general populations, low
self-esteem is a risk factor for a broad range of psychiatric disorders, such as a
depression or an anxiety disorder (Mann et al., 2004; Orth, Robins, & Roberts,
2008). Trzesniewski and colleagues (2006) showed that adolescents with low self-
esteem were at increased risk of developing a depression and an anxiety disorder
as adults, and were more likely to be dependent on tobacco as adults. Moreover,
low self-esteem has been related to externalizing problems such as aggression,
antisocial behavior, and delinquency (Donnellan et al., 2005), and also problem
eating, suicidal tendencies, poor economic prospects (McGee & Williams, 2000),
and feelings of loneliness (Vanhalst, Luyckx, Scholte, Engels, & Goossens, 2013).

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Barendregt et al.
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Conversely, high self-esteem has been associated with academic success in the
school domain, and it works as a protective factor in the development of depres-
sive symptoms (Crocker, Moeller, & Burson, 2010;...