Lethality of Police Shootings and Proximity to Trauma Centers

• Author: Peter A. Hanink,Matthew Renner,Christopher J. Bates
• DOI: http://doi.org/10.1177/10887679221116546
• Published date: 01 February 2023
• Date: 01 February 2023
• Subject Matter: Special Issue Articles

https://doi.org/10.1177/10887679221116546

Homicide Studies

2023, Vol. 27(1) 120 –141

© 2022 SAGE Publications

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DOI: 10.1177/10887679221116546

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Special Issue Article

Lethality of Police Shootings

and Proximity to Trauma

Centers

Peter A. Hanink1, Matthew Renner2, and

Christopher J. Bates3

Abstract

Studies of police shootings have typically focused upon demographic characteristics,

police departmental characteristics, or more traditionally criminological characteristics

such as crime rate. We use police shooting incidents to examine what role a less

examined factor—proximity to a trauma center—has on whether the injured civilian

dies or survives. We improve on previous work by estimating both distances and

drive times along road networks. Findings from this study underscore the importance

of prevention of police shootings, compared to after the fact responses, for reducing

the numbers of homicides by police.

Keywords

homicide, lethality, police shootings, trauma centers

Introduction

Three decades ago, Fyfe (1988) noted that unlike most social science writing, which

begins with an attempt to justify the significance of the topic under study, when it

comes to writing about police use of deadly force, no such attempts are needed as the

significance is obvious (p. 165). The history of police-public interactions in the inter-

vening decades underscores the continuing relevance of Fyfe’s observation. Indeed,

the events of the past decade illustrate the potentially catastrophic consequences of

1California State Polytechnic University, USA

2University of California, Irvine, USA

3Independent Scholar, Long Beach, CA, USA

Corresponding Author:

Peter A. Hanink, Sociology Department, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona 3801 West

Temple Avenue, Pomona, CA 91768, USA.

Email: pahanink@cpp.edu

1116546HSXXXX10.1177/10887679221116546Homicide StudiesHanink et al.

research-article2022

Hanink et al. 121

violent encounters between police and the public. These incidents, especially those

which result in the death of members of the public at the hands of police, can severely

damage police legitimacy (Tyler, 2004), exacerbate racial and political tensions (Smith

& Holmes, 2014), and contribute to community disorganization (Lautenschlager &

Omori, 2019).

This study explores a novel contributor to deadly police-public encounters: access

to lifesaving medical care, specifically, proximity to trauma centers. To our knowl-

edge, the impact of this factor on police use of deadly force has never been studied

previously. In this study, we examine whether proximity to trauma centers can explain

variation in rates of homicide by police (HbP). This study examines this relationship

with a variety of methodologies, measures, and analytical lenses to address the numer-

ous limitations of and challenges posed by prior deadly force research.

Literature Review

The literature on police use of deadly force has traditionally focused on the decision to

use force, rather than the outcome of that decision, and has recognized four domains

of factors that influence police behavior: situational factors (Garner et al., 2002; Lee,

2016; Sun et al., 2008; Terrill & Mastrofski, 2002; White, 2002), officer characteristics

(Ba et al., 2021; Hoekstra & Sloan, 2022; Sun et al., 2008), organizational factors

(Alpert & MacDonald, 2001; C. J. Harris, 2009; Smith, 2004), and neighborhood char-

acteristics (Lersch et al., 2008; Sun et al., 2008; Terrill & Reisig, 2003).

Situational Factors

The literature on situational factors has focused upon the characteristics of the member

of the public (e.g., race, age, and sex), the demeanor the member of the public (e.g.,

compliant or antagonistic), whether the member of the public was armed, and the

number of officers present. Force has been found to be more likely to be used against

young adults and Blacks (Lee, 2016). Echoing Black’s (1970) seminal study on arrests,

Sun et al. (2008) found that members of the public who showed disrespect to officers

were more likely to be subject to coercive behavior such as arrests and force.

Regarding police involved shootings, police are more likely to use more and greater

force against young adults, non-whites, males, and those who are armed (Terrill &

Mastrofski, 2002). The number officers present at the scene has also been found to be

associated with the likelihood and level of force being used (Garner et al., 2002; Terrill

& Mastrofski, 2002); one explanation of this is that more serious offenses (i.e., those

which carry greater risks of violence) are more likely to be responded to by multiple

officers (White, 2002).

Officer Characteristics

The literature on officer characteristics has focused on factors such as age, race, and

sex, and is mixed. While some studies have found no racial differences in use of force