Korean Adoptees as Parents: Intergenerationality of Ethnic, Racial, and Adoption Socialization

• Published date: 01 April 2021
• Author: Xiang Zhou,JaeRan Kim,Heewon Lee,Richard M. Lee
• Date: 01 April 2021
• DOI: http://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12439

X ZPurdue University

JR KUniversity of Washington Tacoma

H L  R M. LUniversity of Minnesota– Twin Cities

Korean Adoptees as Parents: Intergenerationality

of Ethnic, Racial, and Adoption Socialization

Objective: Using a socialization framework,

this study aimed to understand the intergener-

ational patterns of ethnic, racial, and adoption

socialization practices.

Background: Understanding the impact of eth-

nicity, race, and adoption is a lifelong process

for transracially, transnationally adopted indi-

viduals. Few studies, however, have explored

how adult adoptees socialize their children on

ethnicity, race, and adoption and to what extent

this socialization is informed by their own tran-

sracial, transnational adoption experiences.

Method: On the basis of 51 interviews, we inves-

tigated adopted Korean Americans’ reappraisal

of their ethnic, racial, and adoption socializa-

tion experiences growing up transracially and

transnationally, as well as their current ethnic,

racial, and adoption socialization practices with

their children.

Results: Despite the generally limited ethnic,

racial, and adoption socialization from White

adoptive parents, we found via thematic analysis

that Koreanadoptee parents used strategies such

as reculturation with their children, birth family

involvement, and emphasis in multiculturalism

College of Education, Purdue University, 100N. University

Street, West Lafayette, IN 47901(xiangzhou@purdue.edu).

Key Words: adoption socialization, ethnic socialization,

intergenerationality, racial socialization, transnational

adoption, transracial.

in response to the need for ethnic, racial, and

adoption socialization in the next generation.

Conclusion: These themes reect the unique

intergenerational transmission of ethnic her-

itage, racial experiences, and adoption history

based on having grown up in transracial and

transnationaladoptive families.

Implications: Findings can inform

evidence-based practice in working with

adopted individuals and their families, par-

ticularly in addressing ethnic, racial, and

adoption socialization practices.

Adoption presents unique and complex psy-

chological challenges to adopted individuals

throughout their lifespan as children, adoles-

cents, and adults (Baden & O’Leary Wiley,

2007; Greco et al., 2015; Samuels, 2009). Past

research has highlighted the vital role that adop-

tive parents play in the socialization of adoptees

during childhood and adolescence (e.g., Baden,

2015; Hu et al., 2017; Yoon, 2004). Research on

transnational adoption in particular has focused

on the health and psychosocial adjustment of

adoptees during early childhood and adoles-

cence(Askelandet al.,2017).Concurrently,

research on parenting in the context of adop-

tion has prioritized the perspective of White,

adoptive parents with younger-aged children

(Goldberg & Smith, 2016). Given the public

tendency to infantilize adoptees (e.g., adopted

adults are mistakenly referred to as “adopted

Family Relations 70 (April 2021): 637–652637

DOI:10.1111/fare.12439

638 Family Relations

children” throughout their lives) and to privilege

the voice of adoptive parents (Baden, 2016; Park

Nelson, 2016), attention is needed to address the

context of adoptees during adulthood. Indeed,

many adoptees are now parents with children of

their own (Day et al., 2015), but little is known

about this family group.

In this study, we sought to address this

research gap by exploring the parenting expe-

riences of adult Korean adoptees using a

qualitative approach. Our primary objective

was to understand the ethnic, racial, and adop-

tion socialization practices of Korean adoptee

parents. We examined parents’ reections on

their own childhood socialization experiences

growing up in a transracial, transnational fam-

ily, and the extent to which these transracial,

transnational experiences informed their own

parenting practices.

Korean transracial, transitional adoptees con-

stitute one of the largest and earliest transra-

cial, transnational adoption groups in the United

States (Raleigh, 2013). An estimated 1 million

children have been adopted worldwide since the

1940s, with the largest number of children com-

ing from South Korea, accounting for more than

20% of transnational adoptions (Selman, 2012).

More than 125,000 Korean children have been

adopted to the United States, with the major-

ity being transracially adopted and reared by

White adoptive parents (Raleigh, 2013). Given

the number of Korean transnational adoptions

rose to its peak in the 1980s, the majority of

Korean adoptee populations, who represent an

estimated 5% to 10% of the total Korean Ameri-

can population (E. J. Kim, 2010), are now adults

(Côté, 2010).

One of the major developmental tasks of

adulthood is an exploration of intimate rela-

tionships that leads to long-term commitments,

as well as family and career establishments

(Erikson, 1968). For Korean adoptees, this nor-

mative developmental task may be complicated

by the paradoxical experiences of transracial,

transnational adoption (Lee, 2003; Lee & Miller,

2009). In this context, Korean adoptees may

experience racism (i.e., a system of disadvan-

tage based on race) as ethnic-racial minorities in

society, while simultaneously being perceived

and treated by others, especially White adoptive

family members, as if they are members of

the majority culture (i.e., racially White and

ethnically European). Concurrently, adoptees

experience the transnational loss of their birth

families and culture while gaining new adopted

families and assimilating into a new culture.

Compelling narratives from Korean American

adult adoptees suggest they continue to face the

ramications of these transracial, transnational

adoption paradoxical experiences throughout

adulthood (Chang et al., 2017; O. M. Kim et al.,

2017; Langrehr et al., 2015; Park Nelson, 2016).

Parenthood may trigger further identity

development and relationship challenges for

adoptees.Dayet al.(2015),forinstance,

found that becoming a parent affected Korean

adoptees’ perceptions of their own ethnic

and racial identity. They reported an ethnic

and racial identity status shift whereby some

adoptees developed feelings of pride in being

Korean after becoming a parent. In another

qualitative study with 34 adoptees and their

partners, adoptees reinterpreted their adoption

through discussions with their partners (Greco

et al.,2015).Theseaccountsofadopteesas

adults have focused primarily on adoptees’

own identity development and relationships

during adulthood. They have not addressed the

important ramications of transracial, transna-

tional adoption on the next generation—that is,

children of adoptees.

Socialization broadly refers to the process in

which “individuals are taught the skills, behav-

ioral patterns, values, and motivations needed

for competent functioning in the culture where

the child is growing up” (Maccoby, 2007, p. 3).

Within this framework, ethnic, racial, and adop-

tion socialization are distinct but interrelated

approaches to healthy, normative development

for transracial, transnational adoptees (Baden,

2015; Goldberg & Smith, 2016; Hu et al., 2017;

O. M. Kim et al., 2013; Song & Lee, 2009; Yoon,

2004). Although the terms ethnic socialization

and racial socialization are sometimes used

interchangeably, most researchers view them as

twodistinctconstructs(Banerjeeet al., 2011;

Hughes et al., 2006). Ethnic socialization refers

to the sharing of cultural practices, traditions,

and histories and promotion of pride and com-

mitment to one’s ethnic-racial identity (Hughes

& Chen, 1997; Hughes etal., 2006). Racial

socialization refers to the sharing of social struc-

tures, understanding intergroup relationships, as

well as how to cope with discrimination with

regard to one’s race or ethnicity (Hughes etal.,

2006; Hughes & Chen, 1997). Adoption social-

ization, compared with ethnic and racial social-

ization, is an understudied construct (Baden,