Is Peer Influence Gender and Age Specific? Findings From a Sample of Justice-Involved Individuals

• Published date: 01 October 2023
• DOI: http://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X231172647
• Author: Lin Liu
• Date: 01 October 2023
• Subject Matter: Articles

https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X231172647

International Journal of

Offender Therapy and

Comparative Criminology

2023, Vol. 67(13-14) 1425 –1446

© The Author(s) 2023

Article reuse guidelines:

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DOI: 10.1177/0306624X231172647

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Is Peer Influence Gender

and Age Specific?

Findings From a Sample

of Justice-Involved

Individuals

Lin Liu1

Abstract

Peer influence is generally understood to be one of the primary predictors of crime

and delinquency. It is unclear, however, whether the mechanism that connects peer

association, endorsement of deviant values, and delinquent behavior applies equally

across different age and sex groups. This study examined age- and gender-specific

susceptibility to delinquent and prosocial peer influence using a sample of justice-

involved individuals. Based on multigroup structural equation modeling, the author

found the nexus among peer association, endorsement of deviant values, and violent

delinquency varied across gender and age groups. Among adult male respondents,

delinquent peers strengthened deviant culture whereas prosocial peers inhibited

that culture. Among juvenile respondents, deviant culture was not inhibited by

relationships with prosocial peers. The results for adult females showed no significant

influence by either delinquent or prosocial peers.

Keywords

the age- and gender-specific effect of peer influence, endorsement of deviant values,

mental health, reentry, violent delinquency

Article

1University of Florida, Gainesville, USA

Corresponding Author:

Lin Liu, Department of Sociology and Criminology & Law, University of Florida, PO Box 117330,

Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.

Email: lindyliu@udel.edu

1172647IJOXXX10.1177/0306624X231172647International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative CriminologyLiu

research-article2023

1426 International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 67(13-14)

Introduction

Associating with delinquent, antisocial friends, particularly those who engage in

violent behavior, has been found to be one of the strongest proximal predictors of

criminal behavior (Akers, 2001; Akers & Jensen, 2011; Haynie, 2001; Haynie &

Osgood, 2005; Steinberg & Monahan, 2007; Warr, 2002). The causal path from

delinquent peer association to offending is said to be based on a variety of individual

motivations, including learned definitions and justifications favorable to delin-

quency (Akers, 1998; Akers & Jennings, 2019; Burgess & Akers, 1966) as well as

the desire to solidify peer loyalty (Baron, 2015; Warr, 2002), advance self-interest

by obtaining access to illicit income (Copes et al., 2010), or elevate personal power

and dominance at school and in one’s neighborhood (Anderson, 1999; Liu et al.,

2022; Matsuda et al., 2013).

The effects of delinquent peer association have garnered vast empirical support

from studies of various criminal behaviors (e.g., Ferguson et al., 2009; Jennings

et al., 2010; Leverso et al., 2015; Stoolmiller & Blechman, 2005) and social groups

(e.g., Carson, 2013; Leve & Chamberlain, 2005; Mowen & Boman, 2019). The

causal path suggested by those studies connects delinquent peer association to the

endorsement of deviant values and then to delinquency. However, an important

question for policymakers, researchers, and practitioners remains unanswered:

Does age or gender affect the direction or strength of peer influence on delin-

quency? That is, are adults as susceptible as juveniles, and are women as suscepti-

ble as men? Prior studies of delinquent peer association have examined either

juveniles (Akers & Jensen, 2011; Battin-Pearson, 1998; Carson, 2013; Leve &

Chamberlain, 2005; Singer et al., 1993) or adults (Heidemann et al., 2014; Mowen

& Boman, 2019) but have not compared the two age groups. Past studies have also

been methodologically constrained. They have relied primarily on regression mod-

els (an exception is Simons et al., 1980). Regression models, however, are rarely

able to estimate the role of a deviant value, which is needed for studies based on

social learning theory (Akers & Jennings, 2019). In addition, although studies of

delinquent peer association often cite Akers’ social learning theory, it is important

to appreciate that this theory is not limited to the effects of harmful peers; it also

pertains to the effects of beneficial influencers such as prosocial peers, religious

organizations, and school teachers (Akers & Jennings, 2019, p. 106). Prosocial peer

association, however, has received little attention in the research. Social learning

theory-based research on delinquent peer association has also been limited by a

reliance on general population samples. The applicability of the theory to justice-

involved social groups is less well understood. Deviant values, for example,

have been shown to be a main driver of delinquency (Martinez & Abrams, 2013).

These values can be weakened through rehabilitation programs involving cogni-

tive-behavioral or other therapeutic approaches (Cuevas et al., 2017). It is important

to assess whether, following involvement in these programs, individuals can again

become susceptible to deviant values by associating with delinquent peers.1 Prior

studies have found post-incarcerated persons bear the stigma of a criminal: they

tend to be rejected from conventional groups and are more likely to associate with