The internationalization of the communal conflict in Darfur and its regional and domestic ramifications: 2001-2007.

• Author: Salih, Kamal O.

THIS ARTICLE ADDRESSES THE COMMUNAL conflict in the Darfur region of Western Sudan focusing mainly on the genesis of the conflict, its process and the different attempts made at its reconciliation. Furthermore, the essay discusses primarily the internationalization process of the conflict and how in a short period of time it has attracted the attention of the United Nations, Western powers and human rights groups; and why the Western powers, in particular, called for international intervention. In addition, the paper examines the regional and domestic impact of the internationalization of the conflict mainly focusing on Sudan's straining relationship with neighboring countries such as Chad and the Central African Republic as well as discerning the impact of the internationalization process on the negotiating position of the Darfur rebellion movements.

THE GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION AND THE DEMOGRAPHIC STRUCTURE OF THE DARFUR REGION

Geography and Climate

Darfur (Arabic meaning "home of the fur") is a region of far western Sudan, bordering the Central African Republic, Libya and Chad. It is divided into three federal states within Sudan: Gharb Darfur (West Darfur), Janub Darfur (South Darfur) and Shamal Darfur (North Daffur). (1)

Darfur covers an area of some 493,180 square kilometers (196,555 square miles) about three-quarters the size of Texas. (2) It is largely an arid plateau with the Marrah Mountains (Jebel Marra), a range of volcanic peaks rising up to 3,000 meters (10,000 ft), in the center of the region. The region's main towns are Al Fashir, Nyala and Geneina.

Population

Based on the last population census conducted in 1993, the population of Darfur is estimated to be 6 million. (3) The population of Darfur is divided into two major ethnic groups: the African and the Arab. The African group comprises the fur (after whom the region is named), speaking a Nilo-Saharan language as well as Zaghawa, Masalit, Midob, Al-Barti, Al-Falata, and Al-Tama. The Arab group includes Al-Taisha, Al-Habania, Bani Helba, Al-Rizigat, Al-Misseria and Al-Malia. (4)

One hundred percent of the residents of Darfur are Sunni Muslims. The an-Najati Sufi order is widespread among the residents of Darfur. (5) The tribes in the region who are of "African origin" are considered to be more zealous in their practice of Islam than the other, "non-African" tribes. The residents of Darfur can be divided into two linguistic groups. About 50 percent of the tribes speak Arabic as their mother tongue. The other 50 percent speak regional dialects (Beigo, Daju, Fongoro, Fulbe, Fur, Kujarge, Masalit, Tama, Zaghawa), but at the same time use Arabic as a second language. (6)

Economic Characteristics

There are two types of natural resources in Darfur. The first includes the surface resources, which is to say the agricultural crops and animals and the vast pasturelands that extend throughout the lowlands of the area. (7) The other main resources are buried underground, specifically oil, iron, uranium and copper.

Drought and desertification which swept the region during the last three decades, has had a devastating impact on the region's economy. (8) As a result several tribes professed losses both in grazing and farming that is much needed for survival.

ROOT CAUSES OF THE COMMUNAL CONFLICT

In our attempt to scrutinize the nature and the underlying causes of the Darfur crisis, we have to point to the fact that conflicts and feuds in Darfur are not a new phenomenon. A variety of factors namely geographical, natural, social, economic, security and political have helped to shape the region. Below we shall examine these factors in greater detail.

Conflict between Farmers and Nomads over Resources

During the last three decades, the Darfur region was exposed to waves of drought and desertification which has had a devastating impact on the local environment. As a result of the drought, the nomadic tribes were forced to leave their home areas and to intrude into new territories looking for water and grazing areas. The penetration of these territories led to confrontation and later clashes between the nomads and the sedentary tribes (farmers) who inhabited these areas earlier. In these tribal clashes, thousands of people perished.

It is clear that these conflicts started at the beginning of the 1980s and that the Southern Darfur state has witnessed the bulk of these tribal conflicts. To avoid these tribal clashes, the peoples of Darfur have established a mechanism that guaranteed peaceful co-existence between neighboring tribes. This is apparent in the seasonal movements of the nomadic tribes who usually move north during the rainy season (May-September) while moving south during the dry seasons (October-March). These seasonal movements address the basic needs of the nomads in terms of the utilization of some of the grazing lands while at the same time guaranteeing the rights of the farmers by preventing the swarming of their farms by the herdsmen. (9)

This tribal tradition was respected by the two parties--nomads and farmers--and remained the only guarantee for the safety of the nomadic routes between villages and farms. However, in the last few decades drastic changes occurred in the region and, as a result, tribal clashes have increased.

Military and Security Instigators

Security has been a major factor that has contributed to the current state of turmoil in Darfur. This is exemplified by the spilling over of armed conflicts from neighboring countries into Darfur. The eruption of civil war in Chad, for example, led to the proliferation of arms in Darfur.

Darfur was also an operational area for the Islamic Brigades, a force of some five brigades set up by Libya during the time of its wars with Chad. (10) Against this backdrop of militarization, Darfur became a hotbed for foreign forces, a regular landing strip for foreign military transport planes of mysterious origin, and a haven for foreign organizations operating under the cover of "humanitarian aid agencies."

The proliferation of arms coincided with the first wave of drought and desertification which hit the region of Darfur in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Eventually, most of the sedentary, as well as the nomadic tribes resorted to armed robbery so as to compensate for the large sums of money they lost as a result of drought and desertification. Other factors have also contributed to the widespread situations of these phenomena: (11)

1. The state of poverty in the region.

2. The absence of big developmental projects in the different parts of the region and the lack of jobs.

3. The inadequacy of state institutions and, in particular, security as well as the lack of communication networks.

4. The traditional cultural folklore that hails armed robbery, likening it to a brave act.

5. The desire to make mass fortunes within a short period of time.

   From a legal point of view, the concept of armed robbery means the use of intimidation or the threat of using force to rob. (12) Organized crime developed to the point where armed gangs stopped a passenger bus and calling one of the passengers by name ordering him to give them the sum of money he cashed from one of the banks. Thousands of cases of armed robbery of this sort were reported in the three states of the Darfur region between 2000 and 2005.

   The Lack of Economic Development

   During the British occupation of Sudan (1898-1956), the bulk of the country's resources were devoted towards the Northern river provinces, mainly Khartoum and the Blue Nile, leaving the rest of the country relatively undeveloped. (13) Over the course of time, 56% of all investments occurred in Khartoum, Kassala and the Northern Province versus 17% for both Kordofan and Darfur, resulting in about 5-6% in Darfur as Kordofan received the bulk of funds in the West. Darfur, like the rest of Sudan outside the Nile Valley, remained an undeveloped backwater even though independence was achieved in 1956.

   There is a consensus among the Sudanese scholars that if the successive Sudanese governments since independence had utilized rich natural resources of the Darfur region earlier (i.e. the vast fertile agricultural lands, livestock, mineral resources including oil), this would have had a profound effect on the development of other regions in the Sudan--north, central and east--and would have substantially increased the country's national income balancing the wealth among the provinces instead of just limiting development to one area. (14)

   The present Sudanese government tried earlier in 1991 to develop the Darfur region by allocating one billion pounds in aid; comprising of the construction of international airports and the building of more schools and hospitals. However, the lack of security and stability in the region at this time debilitated the construction of these developmental projects. (15) Instead, most of these funds were diverted to promote security in the region.

   Political Factors

   The political factor is considered one of the major reasons that precipitated the Darfur crisis. To grasp this more fully, we need to survey the political history of Darfur.

   To begin with, an organized political society has existed in Darfur for generations, a fact that was illustrated by the founding of an independent Islamic kingdom in the 14th century. (16)

   It is generally asserted that Darfur developed outside the framework of the Sudanese state which emerged after the Egyptian-Turkish occupation (1821-1885) (17) and this continued until Darfur was incorporated by the British into Sudan in 1916. To pacify Darfur and to facilitate its rule, the British colonial administration applied the concept of native administration. However, this system did not last very long, as the Nemeiri regime abolished it in 1971.

   After the abolition of the native administration system, the Nemeiri regime shifted to the system of regionalism. Regionalism has major shortcomings and it did not perform its role as effectively...