Indigenous Interpretations of the Right to Education Incorporating Gandhi's Visionary Philosophy to Educational Reform

• Citation: Vol. 30 No. 3
• Publication year: 2016

Indigenous Interpretations of the Right to Education Incorporating Gandhi's Visionary Philosophy to Educational Reform

Anna Saraie

INDIGENOUS INTERPRETATIONS OF THE RIGHT TO EDUCATION INCORPORATING GANDHI'S VISIONARY PHILOSOPHY TO EDUCATIONAL REFORM

Abstract

Since the 1940s, there has been a growing movement for the promotion of education. There is now an obligation in the international community to ensure that every child has the resources to exercise his or her right to education. Two problems have emerged from this obligation. First, international agreements define the right to education ambiguously but require countries to adhere to strict and unrealistic deadlines. This has burdened developing countries. Second, there has been an increase in violent opposition groups targeting children to protest the promotion of education. To combat these problems, states should incorporate Mahatma Gandhi's educational philosophy. Gandhi advocated that education should be free but self-reliant, emphasize learning by doing, and be based on indigenous culture. Tanzania has implemented policies similar to Gandhi's proposals and has been successful in ensuring access to education. This Comment argues that the Tanzanian model may be a promising approach to promote the right to education in developing countries.

Introduction

Is it possible to guarantee that every child in the world obtains a formal education? The international community believes that universal access to primary education is indeed attainable.¹ Since the 1940s, there has been a growing movement for the promotion of primary education as evidenced by the ratification of over five international agreements.² Most recently in 2000, the united Nations (u.N.) launched the u.N. Millennium campaign, which

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formulated a set of eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) to be accomplished by 2015.³ In terms of education, the United Nations pledged that it would "ensure that, by . . . [2015] . . . children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling."⁴ As these international agreements demonstrate, the right to education has become a human right and the international community now has an obligation to ensure that every child has the resources to exercise that right.⁵

Reflecting on the past decade since this international movement towards universal education began, it is evident that there have been great advances in protecting the right to education.⁶ Research shows that "the number of children enrolled in primary education more than doubled between 1990 and 2012, from 62 million to 149 million."⁷ In developing regions where access to education was most scarce, the school enrollment rate "increased from 83 per cent to 90 per cent between 2000 and 2012."⁸

However, the school enrollment rate is not a sufficient method to determine whether universal access to education is being achieved. The school completion rate is a more accurate measure. Research indicates that while children may enroll in school, many drop out.⁹ Between 2000 and 2011, there was a twenty-seven percent drop-out rate in the developing world.¹⁰ In Oceania, only "one in two pupils" completed primary schooling in that same time period.¹¹ These data indicate that the international community is far from achieving universal access to primary education.¹²

This Comment examines two major problems that have come about since the emergence of the right to education. First, international agreements define

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the right to education in a broad manner, which has placed an unrealistic burden on developing states to provide education. Developing countries in Oceania, sub-Saharan Africa, and Western Asia saw declining progress in the promotion of education between 2000 and 2011.¹³ Of these areas, sub-Saharan Africa yielded the least access to education.¹⁴ The region has the lowest percentages of primary school enrollment and attendance.¹⁵ According to 2005 estimates from the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), an "estimated 45 million children do not attend primary school in Sub-Saharan Africa."¹⁶ These numbers indicate that international agreements promoting education have set goals that developing countries simply do not have the resources to meet.

The second problem in achieving the right to education is the increase in violent activities targeting schools and children that have emerged in response to recent international efforts to promote education. Terrorist organizations such as Boko Haram and the Pakistani Taliban have resorted to kidnapping and killing young children to express their opposition to Westernized education.¹⁷

In order to address both problems that have arisen since the emergence of the right to education, a new approach in interpreting the right is required. This Comment will suggest incorporating Mahatma Gandhi's philosophy of education into efforts promoting the right to education for all. Gandhi's thoughts are appropriate to discussions on the right to education for three reasons: (1) his ideals originated in a political and economic environment similar to that currently faced by developing countries;¹⁸ (2) he had a personal connection with Africa where access to education is most scarce;¹⁹ and (3) his approach towards education reform is unique since it was not developed from a strictly academic standpoint.²⁰ Gandhi identified miseducation and lack of

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education as flaws of the educational system and argued that education should be free and compulsory, have practical purposes, and be based on indigenous values.²¹

What is fascinating is that Tanzania achieved success in promoting education through incorporating the principles that Gandhi spoke about. Although Tanzania did not explicitly incorporate these proposals, its policies are comparable if not identical to those that Gandhi advocated.²² Since Tanzania's educational reforms led the country to place more children in schooling compared to other countries in sub-Saharan Africa,²³ an approach that encompasses Gandhi's philosophy may be an ideal way to promote education in other developing countries.

Gandhi's principles contributed to Tanzania's successful path towards ensuring that children are not deprived of their rights to education; however, the approach is open to criticism. This Comment will address two possible criticisms. First, the argument could be made that indigenous interpretations of the right to education directly conflict with universal standards of the rights of girls.²⁴ This Comment acknowledges the potential conflict and argues that the international community cannot resolve it by simply demanding that the right to education take precedence over all cultural norms in a particular society. Cultural transformation, a process that looks to legitimize human rights, must take place but can only be done by locals in their specific cultural context.²⁵ Second, the argument could be made that Tanzania was exceptional in that it had strong leadership under President Julius Nyerere, and therefore this approach cannot be used by other countries that lack strong leadership.²⁶ This Comment acknowledges the potential criticism and argues that for countries with less stable leadership, forming partnerships between non-state actors and local communities is the most suitable option.

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Part I of this Comment provides background on the emergence of the right to education. This Part is intended to provide a thorough understanding of how the right to education became a human right. Part II discusses two major problems that have arisen since the development of the universal right to education. First, the movement towards universal access to education burdened developing countries by placing unrealistic expectations on them. Second, there has been a rise of violent resistance from terrorist organizations—including recent attacks by Boko Haram—against universal education.²⁷ Part III provides an overview of Gandhi's philosophy of education. It highlights his views on the problems with India's educational system and recommendations for reform. Part IV illustrates how Tanzania implemented educational policies that mirrored Gandhi's proposals and as a result, successfully increased the rate at which its children completed primary schooling. Part V discusses potential criticisms of the Tanzanian model.

I. EMERGENCE OF A UNIVERSAL RIGHT TO EDUCATION

Before discussing the parameters of how best to promote the right to education, it is essential to first comprehend why and how education became a human right. This Part provides a historical background of the right to education.

A. Right to Education Before the 1940s

Before the 1940s, the international system was based on the Westphalian state order.²⁸ This system was brought about in 1648 with the signing of the treaties of Munster and Osnabruck.²⁹ The Westphalian state order was based on the idea that "states are constitutionally independent (sovereign) and have exclusive authority to rule within their own borders."³⁰ The state was the "highest point of decision and authority" and therefore, social, economic, and political life centered around it.³¹

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The rise of globalization following World War II gradually eroded this structure.³² Globalization is characterized as a process of "massive exchanges of economic activities, human movements, and information flows across borders."³³ Great advancements in technology contributed to "the integration of markets, nation-states and technologies to a degree never witnessed before."³⁴ The current world system is no longer a system "built around division and walls," as was the case under the Westphalian state system, but is now "a system increasingly built around integration and webs."³⁵

This increased integration and interconnectedness across borders has brought about new actors who are "attempting to voice their concerns in a global...