Indian Nations as Interest Groups

• Published date: 01 March 2012
• Date: 01 March 2012
• DOI: 10.1177/1065912910388182
• Subject Matter: Articles

Political Research Quarterly
65(1) 179 –191
Indian Nations as Interest
© 2012 University of Utah
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Groups: Tribal Motivations for
DOI: 10.1177/1065912910388182
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Contributions to U.S. Senators
Frederick J. Boehmke1 and Richard Witmer2
Abstract
The expansion of Indian gaming has produced significant financial gains for Indian nations across the United States.
In response to this influx of revenue, tribes have expanded their political activity, particularly in those areas that are
heavily resource dependent. In this article the authors argue that adopting an organized interests perspective enhances
scholars’ understanding of tribal political activity. To demonstrate this, they study Indian gaming contributions received
by senators from 1990 to 2004. The authors apply broadly utilized theories of contribution patterns based on the
value of access for a group and the cost of access to a member, focusing on ideology, access, electoral security, and
constituency characteristics. The results indicate that tribes respond to all of these factors in ways similar to more
traditional organized interests.
Keywords
political organizations, parties, race, ethnicity, politics
Since the passage of the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act
working with off-reservation officials, tribal leaders seek
(IGRA) in 1988, the Indian gaming industry has emerged
to influence the policy process in a number of different
by 2008 as a $26-billion-a-year industry.1 The resulting
ways including the provision of information, contributions
opportunity for greater financial resources for over two
to office seekers, and the mobilization of Indian voters
hundred Indian nations with gaming agreements has pro-
(Witmer and Boehmke 2007).
vided a new opportunity for Native Americans to influ-
While gaming is a relatively new issue among more
ence government policies at the state and national levels.
traditional concerns for Indian nations, the potential to
Yet little is known about how Indian nations have utilized
address these issues via lobbying and campaign contri-
these newly available resources in pursuit of political
butions has greatly increased over the same period. Thus,
objectives. In this article we argue that we can increase
unlike earlier eras of American Indian involvement in
our understanding of the motivations for tribal political
national politics, which were marked by limited res ource
expenditures in two ways. First, we apply modified theo-
availability, the current era represents a significant depar-
ries of political incorporation and resource mobilization
ture, suggesting that new approaches may be necessary to
to understand the context of Indian political participation
fully understand the current patterns of participation. Most
(Witmer and Boehmke 2007). Second, we evaluate this
useful for this study is a modified political incorporation
perspective by applying to tribal nations theories devel-
perspective according to which tribes and American Indian
oped to explain patterns of contributions to members of
organizations have moved beyond an approach that seeks
Congress by organized interest groups (e.g., Grier and
to have members of the group win elections or serve in
Munger 1993).
appointed positions (Browning, Marshall, and Tabb 1984,
As scholars before us have noted, Indian nations are
1986, 1997; Warren 1997; Hero 1992). Instead, a number
intriguing political actors as they can act as both sover-
eign nations and interest groups when interacting with gov-
1University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
ernment officials (e.g., Mason 2000; Wilkins 1999). In
2Creighton University, Omaha, NE, USA
addition, Indian nations are headed by elected leaders who
rep re sent the interests of members of the tribe. This is esp-
Corresponding Author:
Frederick J. Boehmke, University of Iowa, Department of Political
ecially important when dealing with off-reservation actors
Science, 341 Schaeffer Hall, Iowa City, IA 52242
including federal, state, and local governments. While
Email: frederick-boehmke@uiowa.edu

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180
Political Research Quarterly 65(1)
of Indian nations have utilized resources now available
prohibit Indian gaming operations that went counter to
following the advent of Indian gaming to pursue an inter-
state law. On the heels of the 1981 Supreme Court ruling
est group strategy (Witmer and Boehmke 2007; Mason
in Seminole Tribe of Florida v. Butterworth (1981), the
2000; Wilkins 1999). This increased participation is fairly
Court’s decision in California v. Cabazon Band of Indians
widespread, with over one hundred different tribes engag-
(1987) confirmed that the state of California, and other
ing in lobbying or making campaign contributions at the
states including Florida, could not prohibit Indian
federal level just in 2000. At the same time there exists a
nations from operating gaming businesses on Indian res-
tension between focusing on Indian nations’ sovereign
ervations that were regulated off reservation by the state.
rights and distinct cultures and viewing them solely through
The Court did allow for the regulation of tribal gaming
the relatively narrow lens of organized interests in the
but placed those decisions in the hands of Congress. A
American political system.
compromise between American Indians and the states
While an emerging literature has utilized the organized
was reached in 1988 when Congress passed the IGRA.2
interests perspective to study political activity by Indian
With IGRA, tribes and states were compelled to negoti-
nations, particularly for political expenditures (e.g., Skopek,
ate a gaming compact in good faith or the federal gov-
Engstrom, and Hansen 2005; Witmer and Boehmke 2007),
ernment would step in and issue a decision on gaming
we believe that it is still underused as previous studies
within a reservation.
have rarely explicitly evaluated its effectiveness for under-
As a result, since the passage of IGRA, the emergence
standing tribal activities. In this article we explore the value
of Indian gaming has put pressure on state governments
of this perspective in more detail by conducting regres-
to work with Indian nations to negotiate the type and
sion analysis to study Indian nations’ campaign con tributions
amount of gaming within states (Boehmke and Witmer
to all U.S. senators since the passage of IGRA in 1988
2004; Rand and Light 2006). Consequently, Indian nations
until 2004. In particular, we rely on a well-established lit-
have a financial incentive to become involved with the
erature on the factors that help determine contributions by
policy process as gaming negotiations and federal regula-
organized interests to provide a theoretically motivated
tion greatly affect their economic self-sufficiency (Skopek,
set of explanatory variables, including senators’ institutional
Engstrom, and Hansen 2005). In fact, by 2008 the National
standing, ideology, electoral prospects, and constituency.
Indian Gaming Commission reported that tribal gaming
We then directly compare our results to those for the more
revenue exceeded $26.7 billion. The number of tribal
traditional interests examined in prior work, such as busi-
gaming operations that year exceeded 400, with the top
nesses and labor unions.
122 operations bringing in 83 percent of total revenues
Our results indicate that Indian nations’ contributions
(National Indian Gaming Commission 2010).
respond to most of these factors in much the same way as
There also remains an underlying conflict between
do contributions from other interests while also reflecting
federal and state control and self-determination in the
the role of their Native constituency. These findings
area of Indian gaming (Corntassel and Witmer 2008; Light
reinforce the value of combining existing, general theo-
and Rand 2005; Smith 2000). As a result of this conflict
ries of organized interests’ behavior while also considering
and confusion, Indian nations have an incentive to both
American Indian nations’ unique position in the American
clarify existing regulations and influence future decisions
political system. Before discussing the literature on cam-
regarding Indian policy. As noted earlier, tribal govern-
paign contribution strategies and examining the pattern
ments are well suited to represent the collective interests
of contributions from Indian nations, however, we first
of their members in nontribal policy decisions.
discuss the politics and economics of the Indian gaming
The evolution and success of compacting in this new
industry and different perspectives on tribal nation’s polit-
era of Indian–state relations have led to broad changes for
ical participation.
Native Americans including increased awareness of the
need to engage in the political process (Cornell et al.
Indian Gaming and Indian
1999; Light and Rand 2005; National Gambling Impact
Study Commission 1999; McCulloch 1994).3 Further-
Nations in the American
more, the revenues obtained from Indian gaming have led
Political System
to the emergence of Indian nations as important political
actors in state and national politics. Corntassel and Witmer
In the 1980s high-stakes bingo and other forms of gaming
(2008) study the effect of this post-IGRA era, noting that
emerged as an alternative for cash-poor Indian nations
gaming has ushered in an...