Implicit Theories of Child Sexual Exploitation Material Offenders: Cross-Cultural Validation of Interview Findings
| Author | Ross M. Bartels,Virginia Soldino,Hannah K. Bradshaw,Hannah L. Merdian |
| DOI | 10.1177/0306624X19877599 |
| Date | 01 March 2020 |
| Published date | 01 March 2020 |
| Subject Matter | Articles |
research-article2019
Article
International Journal of
Offender Therapy and
Implicit Theories of Child
Comparative Criminology
2020, Vol. 64(4) 315 –334
Sexual Exploitation Material
© The Author(s) 2019
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Offenders: Cross-Cultural
https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X19877599
DOI: 10.1177/0306624X19877599
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Validation of Interview
Findings
Virginia Soldino1 , Hannah L. Merdian2,
Ross M. Bartels2, and Hannah K. Bradshaw2
Abstract
Offense-supportive cognitions are thought to result from underlying implicit
theories (ITs). As child sexual exploitation material (CSEM) users are a distinct
type of sex offender, Bartels and Merdian proposed that CSEM offenders hold
five different ITs from those endorsed by contact sex offenders (i.e., Unhappy
World, Self as Uncontrollable, Child as Sexual Object, Nature of Harm [CSEM variant],
and Self as Collector), linked by an assumption about the Reinforcing Nature of
the Internet. This article reports a conceptual content analysis of 23 interviews
conducted with CSEM offenders in the United Kingdom and Spain. Support for
all CSEM-specific ITs was found across both samples, providing an empirical
validation of this conceptualization. Finally, four ITs originally identified for
contact sex offenders were also identified, namely, Uncontrollability, Child as Sexual
Being, Dangerous World, and Nature of Harm. Further validation of CSEM-related
ITs is encouraged.
Keywords
implicit theory, child sexual exploitation material, online sex offenders, cognitive
distortions, interview
1University of Valencia, Spain
2University of Lincoln, UK
Corresponding Author:
Virginia Soldino, University Research Institute of Criminology and Criminal Science, School of Law,
University of Valencia, Central Departmental Building/Office 1P03, Tarongers Campus, E-46071 Valencia,
Spain.
Email: virginia.soldino@uv.es
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International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 64(4)
Introduction
Child sexual exploitation material (CSEM) portrays the sexual abuse and/or sexual
exploitation of children. Increasing empirical attention has been directed toward identi-
fying the factors associated with CSEM offenders (Babchishin, Hanson, & Van Zuylen,
2015; Seto, 2013). One such factor is cognitive distortions (Kettleborough & Merdian,
2017), which can be defined as surface-level cognitions and/or statements that are
offense-supportive in nature (Ward, 2000). These surface-level cognitions are thought
to be the product of deeper cognitive structures termed implicit theories (ITs)—core
beliefs that bias the processing of social information (Ward, 2000). Due to their explan-
atory power, ITs have been incorporated and expanded upon in later cognitive distor-
tion theories that account for the role of other processes and situational factors.
Examples include the Judgment Model of Cognitive Distortions (Ward, Gannon, &
Keown, 2006) and the Multi-Mechanism Theory of Cognitive Distortions (Szumski,
Bartels, Beech, & Fisher, 2018), as well as multifactorial theories of sexual offending,
such as the Integrated Theory of Sexual Offending (Ward & Beech, 2006) and the
Agency Model of Risk (Heffernan & Ward, 2015). In light of this, establishing the core
beliefs (ITs) that underpin the cognitive distortions of CSEM offenders will provide a
starting point for understanding the role of cognition in CSEM offending more deeply,
as well as helping provide the foundation for developing an assessment measure.
ITs Related to Child Sexual Abuse
Ward and Keenan (1999) proposed five ITs typically endorsed by individuals who
have committed a contact sexual offense against a child (i.e., “Children as Sexual
Beings,” “Nature of Harm,” “Uncontrollability,” “Entitlement,” and “Dangerous
World”), which have been corroborated in subsequent research (e.g., Keown, Gannon,
& Ward, 2010). However, Merdian, Curtis, Thakker, Wilson, and Boer (2014) found
that CSEM offenders report comparatively fewer cognitive distortions linked to these
ITs. Consequently, they suggested that CSEM offenders may harbor a distinct set of
ITs. From a Grounded Theory analysis of the CSEM literature, Bartels and Merdian
(2016) proposed five CSEM-related ITs, linked to each other via a widespread assump-
tion about the Internet:
•• Child as Sex Object—a belief that leads individuals to perceive children as
sexual stimuli rather than people. This IT can lead individuals to filter out or
ignore information that emphasizes a child as a human being, facilitating the
viewing of online CSEM.
•• Unhappy World—believing the world is dejected and filled with judgmental
and uninterested individuals. It can elicit negative affect, facilitating the desire
to seek an escape or more meaningful identity online (e.g., via CSEM-related
behavior).
•• Nature of Harm (CSEM variant)—believing that (a) CSEM-related behavior is
not harmful, or (b) that the behavior depicted in the material is not harmful.
Soldino et al.
317
•• Self as Uncontrollable—the belief that one has no control over their actions due
to it being internally generated and highly stable. This can create a view of
oneself as being “addicted” (e.g., to viewing CSEM).
•• Self as Collector—the belief that one’s self-concept and social status is linked
to collecting behavior, rather than the sexual content of CSEM.
•• Reinforcing Nature of the Internet—a background assumption that the Internet
provides infinite, immediate, anonymous, immersive, and social benefits.
Bartels and Merdian note that these ITs are not all exclusively linked to online
CSEM-related behavior. However, when activated in conjunction with the Reinforcing
Nature of the Internet assumption, they become contextualized, increasing their likeli-
hood of facilitating problematic online behavior, including CSEM use. According to
Bartels and Merdian, these ITs are predominantly held by individuals who exclusively
commit CSEM offending behavior (so-called “fantasy-driven offenders”; see Merdian
et al., 2018), while “contact-driven” CSEM users are thought to also hold some of the
Contact ITs identified by Ward and Keenan (1999).
To date, we are aware of only one attempt to empirically validate these specific ITs
in CSEM offenders. In Howell’s (2018) thesis, a group of convicted CSEM offenders
(i.e., those with a CSEM offense but no history of child sexual contact offending) and
mixed offenders (i.e., those with both a CSEM offense and child sexual contact
offenses) recruited in New Zealand were rated using file-based data and compared on
their endorsement of both Bartels and Merdian’s (2016) CSEM ITs, and Ward and
Keenan’s (1999) Contact ITs. No significant differences were found in the endorse-
ment of CSEM ITs between groups; however, mixed offenders were more likely to
endorse Contact ITs than CSEM-exclusive offenders—specifically, Entitlement and
Children as Sexual Beings were able to discriminate between the two groups. However,
it is not clear how context-specific the endorsement of these ITs is. Literature reviewed
predominantly focuses on cognitions communicated in English language; likewise,
most of the studies focusing on sexual offending come from developed, English-
speaking countries (Seto, 2019).
The aim of the current work was, thus, twofold: (a) to validate the existence and
content of Bartels and Merdian’s CSEM-exclusive ITs, using a British sample of
CSEM offenders; and (b) to cross-validate the generation of these ITs independent of
language/cultural context, using secondary qualitative data analyses on existing tran-
scripts of interviews with men convicted of CSEM-related offenses in Spain. In both
studies, the analytic procedure allowed for the possibility of identifying other ITs,
including those linked to “contact-driven” CSEM use (i.e., Ward and Keenan’s ITs).
Study 1: Content Validation of the ITs (U.K. Sample)
Method
Data source. Data-rich transcripts were derived from 3 to 4 hr of semi-structured inter-
views with individuals who were either in court-ordered or voluntary treatment for
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International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 64(4)
their sexual offending behavior at the time of data collection (or had just completed
treatment). Each interview1 was comprised of two parts: (a) details of childhood and
adulthood life experiences, including demographic markers, sexual and relationship
history, offending history, and psychological well-being, and (b) details about CSEM-
related offending behavior, including material characteristics, engagement activities,
self-identified motivation, and desistance behaviors. Anonymized transcripts were
available for 10 White males, who were recruited from two community-based treat-
ment providers for CSEM offenders (a description of the full sample is outlined in
Merdian, Perkins, Dustagheer, & Glorney, 2018). None of the participants had a con-
viction for a contact sex offense against a child. As interview transcripts were fully
anonymized, specific demographic and offending history data cannot be provided.
Analytic procedure. Each transcript was coded by two raters using conceptual content
analysis (CCA; Carley, 1993), with ITs defined as the critical concept. Carley (1993)
outlined a number of elements that should be considered when conducting a CCA.
Table 1...
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