The death of an ideal leader: predictions and premonitions.

• Author: Hakim, Avraham
• Position: Caliph Abu Bakr

The three caliphs who ruled after Abu Bakr--'Umar, 'Uthman and 'Ali, all four known collectively as al-Rashidun, the rightly guided--were assassinated. 'Umar's murder in Medina, after a ten-year caliphate (13-23/635-644), was the first of the three, and seems to have been the most traumatic. The assassination of any prominent leader causes distress and reverberates in the literary works of his people. This is certainly true in the case of 'Umar's assassination, as attested by the large number of traditions dealing with it.

Following the theories of Goldziher, Schacht, and others on the hadith, these traditions are considered here as texts that do not reflect historical occurrences, but rather the ideas and beliefs of the scholars who produced and circulated them by the end of the first Hijra century and the beginning of the second. These texts were projected back to the first era of Islam by means of chains of transmitters, isnads, in order to bestow on them the authority of the founding fathers of the community, namely the Prophet Muhammad, his companions and their followers.

These traditions describe both supernatural manifestations that preceded the assassination and predicted it, as well as the assassination per se. Moreover, they convey the concept that 'Umar's death was perceived as a martyrdom (shahada) that had been foreseen. The predictions allowed 'Umar to comprehend the finality of his coming death and to prepare his people, his umma, for the hard and turbulent times which would follow. The fact that there were several predictions was taken to constitute a firm attestation of God's divine intervention on 'Umar's behalf. The present article is devoted to a description of these supernatural manifestations, quite ignored in modern research, which adds another layer to 'Umar's image as an ideal leader.

1. PREDICTIONS OF 'UMAR'S DEATH

   Many traditions dealing with 'Umar's death relate that various people, including 'Umar himself, predicted his assassination. These predictions all contain elements of the supernatural, thus enhancing the grace of God conferred upon the caliph. On the one hand one can discern in some a universal tendency, since they claim that the murder was already predicted in the holy scriptures of the Jews and Christians. On the other hand, traditions of a different kind describe the murder as having been predicted by means of local pagan rites performed in Arabia since the early pre-Islamic era. Still other traditions describe the murder as having been predicted by the jinn (demons), by a keen and experienced Bedouin, or in dreams. All these reports share the idea that the caliph's murder should be considered as a martyrdom.

   1.1 Universal Characteristics: 'Umar and Ka'b al-Ahbar

   The figure of Ka'b al-Ahbar (d. 32/653), a Jew converted to Islam, is closely related to that of 'Umar. In many traditions the two represent views that seem opposed at times and in Journal of the American Oriental Society 126. (1) (2006) agreement at others. (1) Ka'b is quoted as asserting that the Torah and the Gospels contain hints referring to great Muslim leaders and their deeds. Thus he claims to have found there a detailed description of the Prophet Muhammad (2) and of the whole Muslim community. (3) Likewise, the Shi'ite tradition attributes to Ka'b sayings according to which he identified references to the Shi'ites in the holy scriptures of the Jews and Christians. (4) The following tradition describes a similar prediction. It was transmitted, with minor differences, in three versions with different family isnads on the authority of three people closely related to 'Umar. The first was Aslam (d. 70/80 A.H.), (5) the freedman of 'Umar; the second was al-Miswar b. Makhrama (d. 64/684), (6) who is said to have been a long-standing companion and pupil of 'Umar, (7) and the third was a descendent of 'Umar, 'Ubayd Allah b. 'Umar b. Hafs (d. 140-145/758-763). (8) Below is Aslam's version with some relevant additions from the other versions.

   When 'Umar returned to Medina after his last pilgrimage, Ka'b al-Ahbar approached him and warned him that he should prepare his will, for his death was due within the same year (version: within three days). When 'Umar asked him how he came by this information, Ka'b replied that he had found it in the Torah. 'Umar made Ka'b swear that he had found the name 'Umar b. al-Khattab in the Torah; Ka'b replied that although he did not find 'Umar's name explicitly, he still identified his features, the story of his life, his accomplishments and the description of his era. The next day, when the two met again, 'Umar inquired if any change had occurred; Ka'b replied that two nights remained. On the next day, when they met once more, 'Umar recited two verses of poetry:

   Ka'b has warned me three days (in advance) and he counts them. No doubt, Ka'b's words are true. I am not afraid to meet death, for surely I will die. But I am afraid of sins followed by more sins. When 'Umar was stabbed to death on the third day, Ka'b told him that he had received advance warning. 'Umar replied that he could not flee from the destiny that God had ordained for him.

   Another tradition again confronts 'Umar and Ka'b. This tradition was circulated with yet another Medinan isnad on the authority of 'Umar's freedman (mawla), Sa'd al-Jari, (9) who reports that the caliph summoned his wife Umm Kulthum, the daughter of 'Ali b. Abi Talib, to meet him. When she came she was crying and her husband asked her about the cause of her sadness. She replied that "this Jew," meaning Ka'b al-Ahbar, was telling everyone that 'Umar was to be posted at one of the gates of Hell. 'Umar, confused, exclaimed that this was in the hands of God and that he hoped indeed that God created him to be happy (meaning that he hoped God intended for him to be in Paradise, literally: khalaqani sa'idan). (10) He ordered Ka'b to appear before him. As soon as he came into the caliph's presence Ka'b begged him to withhold his wrath until he explained himself. He swore by God that 'Umar would enter Paradise before the end of the month of Dhu al-Hijja of that year. The caliph inquired how he could be both in Hell and in Paradise. Ka'b answered that he found in the Book of God that 'Umar was assigned to stand firmly at one of the gates of Hell where he would prevent the believers from falling into it. But when he died they would breach the gate and march into Hell until the day of Resurrection. (11)

   In the first tradition cited above, 'Umar's death and its exact time are predicted in the Torah. The caliph is given ample warning to prepare himself. 'Umar expresses his feelings and thoughts about this by reciting poetry, a frequent practice in connection with momentous events in Arab culture long before Islam. By asserting that he believes Ka'b's statement to be true, the caliph bestows Islamic legitimacy upon the prophecies of the Holy Scriptures of the Jews and Christians. The scholars who circulated this tradition embedded universal elements in it in order to convey the idea that God's grace had been conferred upon 'Umar.

   The second tradition attributes to 'Umar the role of guardian or savior of the Muslim umma, as found in the Scriptures of the Jews and Christians. This image has already been described in modern research. (12) As long as he lived, 'Umar protected Muslims from sin and error, unifying them with his firm grasp and his dreaded whip (al-dirra). When he died, no one remained to perform this huge task. The Muslim community would therefore err and sin and fall into never-ending struggles. The scholars who circulated this tradition, long after 'Umar's death, cited the Jewish and Christian Scriptures as having foreseen the distressing times that began a bare ten years after the caliph's assassination, when the Muslims began fighting bitterly against each other in an endless series of civil wars and forgot the glorious and unifying era of 'Umar, the ideal caliph and leader.

   1.2 Local Characteristics: Predictions by Ornithomancy ('iyafa)

   In traditions of another kind 'Umar's death is predicted by means of ornithomancy ('iyafa), which was practiced throughout the ancient world, including pre-Islamic Arabia. This rite is performed by watching flying birds and throwing stones at them. Skillful men are said to be able to predict future events from the birds' flight. In a forthcoming article dealing with the title khalifat Allah attributed to 'Umar, several versions of a tradition transmitted on the authority of Jubayr b. Mut'im were described and analyzed. (13) A brief summary is given below.

   Jubayr relates that he accompanied 'Umar on what would be the latter's last pilgrimage. As they were performing the rites at 'Arafa, two other men were performing 'iyafa, divination by means of the flight of birds, at the same place. The men were members of the Lihb tribe from Azd, known to be experts in performing 'iyafa. One of them recognized 'Umar, who stood nearby, and addressed him vociferously with the title khalifat Allah, "caliph of God." His friend cursed him, either because he used that title or because he disturbed the caliph as he performed his religious duty. Be it as it may, on the next day, while 'Umar was casting pebbles as part of the rami al-jamarat rite, a stray pebble hit the caliph's forehead and injured him. The Lihbi 'a'if from the previous day, who witnessed the incident, shouted that this was a sign he received (by means of the 'iyafa ritual) and interpreted it as meaning that 'Umar would not perform the pilgrimage again. And indeed, 'Umar was assassinated shortly after this incident. (14) Here again, the scholars describe how a supernatural ancient ritual predicted the death of the ideal leader.

   1.3 Predictions by the Demons (jinn)

   A widely circulated tradition has the demons (jinn) predicting 'Umar's death. This tradition is transmitted with a Medinan isnad on the authority of 'A'isha. (15) She relates that 'Umar allowed...