The African Holocaust: should Europe pay reparations to Africa for colonialism and slavery?

• Author: Spitzer, Ryan Michael

ABSTRACT

For many people of European descent, slavery is little more than an unpleasant memory of a bygone and distant era, largely remembered more for the glory of empires lost and faded dreams of conquest and exploration. For many Africans and African Americans, however, slavery remains an unhealed wound that is frequently, if not constantly, reopened by feelings of continued oppression, manipulation, and discrimination. These disparate views clashed most recently at the U.N. World Conference Against Racism, held in Durban, South Africa in September of 2001.

Inspired by the U.N. Conference in Durban, this Note analyzes the potential for reparations between European and African countries as a possible solution to the lingering issues of slavery and colonialism. It does not argue for or against African reparations. Rather, this Note traces the historical development of the reparations concept through treaties and judicial action and addresses the legal and practical viability of reparations for African states.

Throughout the analysis, this Note emphasizes the moral forces that permeate this area of international law. The law among states is largely defined by changing humanitarian ideals. Although this Note does not attempt to critique the ultimate merits of these humanitarian arguments, it recognizes that their influence must be considered to properly evaluate the potential for African reparations.

By evaluating the legal avenues and pitfalls for African reparations, this Note seeks to advance the reparations discussion toward a permanent solution that is acceptable to all. Compensation for the oppressed is not the objective; nor is absolution for the oppressors. The real goal should be a lasting peace, devoid of both feelings of victimization and of undue blame. Humanity must find a way to put the issues of slavery and colonization to rest. Only by understanding the moral forces behind the dynamic concept of international human rights can a resolution that does not inspire future resentment be found.

To that end, this Note evaluates the development of the reparations concept since World War II regarding the Nazi Holocaust and other human rights violations. It discusses actions under the Alien Tort Claims Act and the Foreign SOvereign Immunities Act in light of judicial obstacles such as the Act of State Doctrine, the Nonjusticiable Question Doctrine, and the statute of limitations. Throughout the discussion, this Note brings to light the underlying sentiments that motivate the pursuit of reparations, encourage or discourage resolution by treaty or judicial settlement, and continue to inspire feelings of resentment and subjugation. Finally, this judicial and moral framework is superimposed onto African reparation claims for slavery and colonization to evaluate possible solutions through treaties or judicial action.

1. INTRODUCTION

   In early September 2001, delegates from the world's Western democracies joined representatives from across the globe at the U.N. World Conference Against Racism (WCAR or Conference), expecting a celebration of global tolerance and diversity. (1) The Conference was intended to showcase a new global community, characterized by a sweeping moral commonality on human rights issues and a condemnation of the now supposedly universally-recognized reprehensibility of slavery and colonization. (2) Delegates from the Western states expected to revel in the moral progress the international community has made since the earliest days of the League of Nations. (3)

   What they found, instead, was an atmosphere of divisiveness that threatened to undermine the entire Conference. (4) European delegates were dismayed by lingering resentment over slavery and colonization. (5) Rather than easily passing a resolution against race and gender discrimination, the delegates were faced with the possibility of being condemned for centuries of slave trading and colonialism. (6) Ultimately, the WCAR served not as a shining example of global unity, but as a reminder of the deep-rooted divisions that continue to plague the international community. (7)

2. FREEDOM AND SELF-DETERMINATION FOR AFRICA

   The perception of the reparation issue is fundamentally different for Africans than for African Americans. "While slavery is the family history that defines the African-American community, it is for many Africans an abstraction of the past, overshadowed by Africa's later struggles against European colonialism." (8) Although the African reparation movement necessarily includes many of the same claims of oppression and unjust enrichment as the African American perspective regarding slavery, the African view also focuses on the lingering economic effects of colonialism. (9) In particular, the African reparation movement concentrates on debt forgiveness rather than the educational and social reforms sought in the United States. (10)

   Judge Fouad Ammoun of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) described the development of Africa "before there fell upon it the two greatest plagues in the recorded history of mankind: the slave-trade, which ravaged Africa for centuries on an unprecedented scale; and colonialism, which exploited humanity and natural wealth to a relentless extreme." (11) Although Africa is largely in ruins today, it once boasted thriving states and empires dating back to Roman times. (12) However, the economic position of modern Africa has continued to decline in the latter half of the twentieth century. For instance, the per capita income in Zaire dropped from $210 in 1968 to $79 in 1983. (13) The rapid descent of per capita income is due to the combined effects of explosive population growth, a decline in agricultural production, and a stagnant industrial sector. (14) Some authors attribute Africa's poor agricultural and industrial performance to structural dependence on the West. (15) According to this view, European countries manipulate individual African states into producing the specific commodities desired in Europe to the detriment of the overall African economy. (16) For instance, one country may be encouraged to concentrate on exporting a particular mineral to the point of depletion, while another is geared towards producing a particular cash crop such as coffee or cotton. (17) The net result is that the African state is forced to import all of its other basic materials from Europe. (18)

   The situation in Africa has deteriorated to the point that some commentators suggest that it should be written off as a lost cause and that the West should invest elsewhere. (19) The total debt of Africa, nearly $200 billion, is largely the result of African dependence on the West for food, machinery, and technology. (20) Additionally, the massive debt gives Europe and the United States a disproportionate influence over the internal affairs of the African states. (21) Some commentators contend that the West uses the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank to force the African states to develop along a prescribed economic model as a condition to borrowing additional money. (22) This internal meddling by the West inspires many of the deepest feelings of humiliation, frustration, and anger among African states. (23)

   African states also attribute their continued underdevelopment to the desire by Europe and the United States to install African leaders who are easy to manipulate. (24) The result is what many Africans call "Africa's leadership crisis." (25) Many Africans are disillusioned after decades of coups, corruption, abuses of power and human rights, and blind acceptance of advice from the West. (26) The installation of weak or incompetent leaders complements a policy of balkanization that promotes regional conflict and keeps African states susceptible to foreign influence. (27) Some authors suggest that the European powers intentionally prolong conflicts in Africa by providing arms, personnel, technical assistance, and financial support to achieve their own national agendas. (28) Beyond the destabilizing effects of extended disputes, armed conflicts are also a tremendous drain on the limited resources of Africa. (29) Africa spends eight billion dollars annually on its militaries. (30) There are approximately 16 countries involved in civil conflicts that have produced over 6.5 million refugees and 17 million displaced Africans. (31) Currently, Zaire, Sudan, Angola, Sierra Leone, and Somalia are at or near a state of collapse. (32) Many of the states in Africa have been undermined or overturned with such frequency that there are very few truly legitimate regimes or institutions to stabilize the region. (33)

   However, some commentators contend that the West is not at all responsible for the conditions of Africa. (34) They contend that "many of the Asian and African colonies progressed very rapidly during colonial rule, much more so than the independent countries in the same area." (35) Additionally, the debt owed by African states represents resources that have been supplied to them, often supplemented with outright grants or aid. (36) "Difficulties of servicing these debts do not reflect external exploitation or unfavourable terms of trade. They are the result of wasteful use of the capital supplied, or inappropriate monetary and fiscal policies." (37) P.T. Bauer contends that "[t]he principal assumption behind the idea of Western responsibility for Third World poverty is that the prosperity of individuals and societies [in the West] generally reflects exploitation of others [in Africa]." (38)

3. THE UPWARD MARCH OF MANKIND THROUGH INTERNATIONAL LAW

   International law is not a fixed body of rules. Rather, it is an evolving, dynamic indicator of the collective moral progress among and within nations. Judge Ammoun of the ICJ eloquently remarked on the evolution of mankind's struggle with the issues of slavery and colonization in his separate opinion in Legal Consequences For States of the Continued...