Global sustainable development 'from above' and local injustice 'below': the governance challenge facing the Congo basin rainforest.

• Author: Wan, Ken

Contents 1. Introduction 2. Global Sustainable Development 2.1 The Concept, Discourse and Paradigm of Sustainable Development 2.2 The Phenomenon of Globalisation 2.3 The Globalisation of Sustainable Development 3. The Multiple Realms of Governance and the Novelty of the Congo Basin 3.1 Conceptualising the Realms of Governance 3.2 Global Forest Governance 3.3 The Novel Features of Governance in the Congo Basin 4. To What Extent Can CBFP and COMIFAC Contribute to Sustainable Development? 4.1 Beneficial and Detrimental Potential 4.2 The Danger of Destructive Interests 5. Sustainable Development Governance For Whom and 'From Below?' 5.1 Governance For Whom? 5.2 Perspectives 'From Below' 5.3 An Unsustainable Development? 6. Just Governance for the Congo Basin 6.1 What 'Justice?' 6.2 Is Sustainable Development Compatible With Justice? 6.3 Local Injustice in the Congo Basin 6.4 Justice: Another Grand Narrative? 7. Conclusion Endnotes References 1. Introduction

The Congo Basin is home to the world's second largest rainforest after the Amazon in South America. The biodiversity of the Congo Basin Forest is of global significance due to the sheer number of species found in the region and the fact that many such species exist nowhere else on the planet. (1) It is estimated that 29 million people of more than 150 distinct ethnic groups live in the forest, the majority of which are indigenous and greatly dependent upon it. (2) Located in Central Africa, the forest spans the national borders of Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and the Republic of the Congo. The region has seen conflict with devastating social and environmental impacts in various localities. (3) It is said that the Congo Basin still appears to be relatively healthy compared to other tropical forests, although degradation is accelerating. (4)

In the past, conservation efforts focused mainly on the protection of specific species, such as the mountain gorilla and the elephant, and the creation of national parks. However, it became increasingly clear during the early 1990's that what was required was a more comprehensive vision of ecosystems, which in turn necessitated a regional approach. (5) This occurred during a period of 'profound policy and institutional changes relating to environmental problems at the national, regional and international levels.' (6)

In 1992, the 'Rio Declaration on Environment and Development' (7) and the 'Statement of Principles for the Sustainable Management of Forests' (8) were adopted by more than 178 Governments at the monumental United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED). Known as the 'Rio Conference' or 'Earth Summit,' it widely publicised and institutionalised the concept, discourse, and paradigm of 'Sustainable Development.' The concept is generally understood to denote 'development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.' (9) The 'Rio Forest Principles' formed the foundation for the contextually specialised 'Sustainable Forest Management' concept, which recognises that 'forest resources and forest lands should be sustainably managed to meet the social, economic, ecological, cultural and spiritual needs of present and future generations.' (10)

In the same year as the Earth Summit, the European Commission funded the establishment of the Forest Ecosystems in Central Africa (ECOFAC) Programme in the Congo Basin, its objectives being to conserve biodiversity, promote sustainable forest use, and encourage regional cooperation. (11) In 1995, the United States also established the Central African Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE), a 20-year regional initiative designed to reduce the rate of forest degradation and loss of biodiversity through 'sustainable natural resource management,' in order to promote economic development and alleviate poverty for the benefit of people of the region and the global community. (12) In addition to the World Bank, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) such as the World Wildlife Fund, Wildlife Conservation Society, Conservation International, and the African Wildlife Foundation were also actively operating in the region.

During this same period, the states of Central Africa were intensifying regional coordination and such collaborative efforts eventually culminated in an unprecedented conference in Yaounde, Cameroon, in 1999. Described as having opened a new era of 'conservation convergence,' the 'Yaounde Forest Summit' (13) was the first time the Heads of State for Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon had come together to agree upon a shared long-term vision for the region's forests and marks a watershed in forest conservation in Central Africa. (14) This vision became embodied in the conservation and sustainable development principles of the 'Yaounde Declaration' and the associated regional action plan, known as the 'Plan of Convergence.' (15) The international consensus reached in these two documents asserts the following goal:

Sustainable and joint management by Central African States of the forest resources of the sub-region and of a network of protected areas representative of the biodiversity and the ecosystems, for the well-being of the population and to ensure global balance. (16) This objective resulted in the establishment of two distinct but closely related bodies; the Central African Forests Commission (COMIFAC) in 2000 and the Congo Basin Forest Partnership (CBFP) in 2002.

Comprised of ten Central African governments, COMIFAC 'directs, coordinates and makes decisions on sub-regional initiatives and actions pertaining to the conservation and sustainable management of forest ecosystems in Central Africa.' (17) The same treaty through which it acquired its internationally recognized legal status also established three organs by which it is structured; Summits of Heads of State and Government which envisage policies for the region; a 'Council of Ministers' responsible for decision-making, co-ordination and control of implementing policies; and an Executive Secretariat that implements these policies. The Executive Secretariat holds a sub-regional Forum and national fora gathering NGOs, government services, development partners, donors, private sector, civil society and Members of Parliament at the various levels to involve the 'grassroots' in monitoring and evaluating policies. (18) COMIFAC is primarily financed by mandatory contributions from member states but it can also mobilise funds from development partners.

In contrast, CBFP was one of many partnership initiatives launched at the 'World Summit on Sustainable Development' (WSSD). (19) Facilitated on two year periods, originally by the United States, France, and now Germany, the CBFP is a 'type II partnership' meaning that it is a non-binding association by mutual agreement or consent with an 'informal' structure. (20) It is primarily different from COMIFAC due to its wider membership of governments, intergovernmental organisations, NGOs, research groups, and private sector associations from all around the world. (21) COMIFAC is the central political and technical policy- and decision-making body around which the actions of the CBFP are based:

The principal vocation of the CBFP is to strengthen coordination among the various partners in the conservation and sustainable management of the forest ecosystems of Central Africa, while giving preference to the promotion of orientations retained by the beneficiary countries within their regional institution ... [COMIFAC] It also serves as a forum for dialogue to inform new partners about the objectives of the WSSD, the Yaounde Declaration, or COMIFAC. (22) The CBFP operates as a network in which partners share data and information at local, regional and national levels. A central node in this network is the 'Regional Advisory Committee' comprised of the following six active members; a representative of the donor agencies other than the CBFP facilitator; the current Chairmanship of COMIFAC; international NGO members of the CBFP; development NGOs of the sub-region; the private sector members of the CBFP; and of International Organization members of the CBFP. In addition to ensuring better communication and monitoring the activities of partners, its regular role is to advise the facilitator of the CBFP. (23)

A commonality between COMIFAC and CBFP is that both appear to promote the participation of non-government actors such as the private sector, NGOs, and representatives of local 'indigenous' populations; COMIFAC with its sub-regional and national fora, and CBFP in its wide membership. Some of their respective members also have participatory measures. For example, the Africa Forest Law Enforcement and Governance (AFLEG) Process established by the World Bank was designed to create the political space at the regional level for governments to address the complex and politically sensitive issues of forest crime in partnership with major stakeholders from civil society and the private sector. It recognises the 'right of local populations to participate in forest resource management.' (24)

In summary, COMIFAC and CBFP ostensibly exist due to a consensus that the Congo Basin Rainforest must be sustainably managed for the benefit of all. However, a more nuanced understanding of governance that goes beyond the rhetoric is required, for it is clear that there are many underlying issues and tensions surrounding this major environmental domain that attracts local, national, regional, and global concerns and interests. The existence of millions of species and a major ecosystem are at issue and so the vast implications must necessitate academic scrutiny. This case study shall therefore critically examine three central research questions; why, how and for whom is the Congo Basin Rainforest...