From Saint to Eponymous Founder: Abu Bakr al-Mawsili (d. 797/1394) and His Tariqa Mawsiliyya.

• Author: Amir, Or

INTRODUCTION

Recent decades have seen tremendous progress in the study of the social aspects of Sufism, especially compared to the heavy focus on philosophy and theology that characterized the field earlier. (1) Two of the main trends in research at the moment are the study of the Sufi tariqa (pl. turuq)--commonly, though inadequately, translated as "order"--as the main institution associated with the spread of Sufism; and the study of the cult of the Sufi saints, which undoubtedly stood at the core of Sufism and its popularization, especially since the twelfth century. These two developments were closely intertwined, since the turuq usually formed around the figures of these saints. (2) Research has, understandably, focused overwhelmingly on the most popular orders, such as the Qadiriyya, Suhrawardiyya, and Naqshbandiyya, and while it has yielded significant developments and nuances in our understanding of the development, institutionalization, and organization of turuq, there is still much to be done. (3)

Two key insights that this corpus of research has yielded are (a) that we should generally abandon the notion that projected the institutionalization, and especially the organization, of such groups back to the days of their eponymous shaykhs, but rather examine how exactly the disciples of those shaykhs institutionalized their methods, routinized their charisma, (4) and eventually turned their tariqa into an actual social organization; and (b) that a strong emphasis should be placed on local and regional characters in the development of organized Sufism, which necessitates more specific case studies, firmly grounded in their local contexts.

When dealing with Sufism in Greater Syria (bilad al-sham) of the Mamluk period (1260-1516), two important observations are in order: First, during this period no substantial tariqa grew within this region and spread beyond its borders. (5) Second, Sufi groups tended, overwhelmingly it seems, to form and operate around the charismatic figures of shaykhs, who, while they might have been related to, or affiliated with, one or more of the major turuq, acted in complete independence and were strongly rooted in their local settings. (6)

The fact that Greater Syria did not birth any of the great Sufi masters of the period has had a significant impact on the sources available for the study of Sufism in that region. We have nothing comparable to the rich literature available in Persianate Sufism (e.g., in the form of the malfuzat or tadhkira genres) or even the hagiographic literature (manaqib) of Maghrebi or some of the Egyptian shaykhs of the period that is available on a far wider scale. Not that such sources were not produced in Mamluk Greater Syria, but what was produced did not acquire popularity and distribution on a similar level over time, or (and perhaps exactly for that reason) the equivalent attention of modern-day scholars. (7) On the other hand, the Mamluk period witnessed an unparalleled surge in historiographical writing, most notably in the form of biographical dictionaries (tabaqat; tarajim), which were written overwhelmingly by ulema. (8) The combination of these two trends has led to the fact that most of what we know of Sufism in this time and place is based on the writings of non-Sufi actors, which is the complete opposite of our sources on Persianate Sufism. (9)

This does not mean, however, that Sufi shaykhs of Mamluk Greater Syria did not write or that their disciples and descendants did not memorialize their deeds. Nor does it mean that those writings were not preserved. Rather, it means that we need to dig deeper in order to locate those writings and study them, as I hope the present article will demonstrate. It aims to present a case study of one Sufi shaykh, Abu Bakr al-MawsilT (d. 797/1394f.), who was active in fourteenth-century Damascus and Jerusalem, and examine how he established his saintly reputation in society, how he and his descendants institutionalized and consolidated his tariqa as a social organization, and how this local Sufi collective related to the more universal Sufi "orders." As such, it offers a case study that is well grounded in a very specific context, and sheds light both on local Sufism in Mamluk Greater Syria and on the dynamics behind the organization of Sufi furuq in general.

The case of Abu Bakr al-Mawsili and his tariqa offers us a good opportunity for such inquiries, thanks to the relatively rich and varied sources we possess. Al-Mawsili was an influential and admired person in his society, very much esteemed by the ulema, and for that reason his biography is included in most of the contemporary biographical literature. He was also a prolific writer, and many of his works have been preserved, which allows us to have a good understanding of the Sufi tradition and milieux he belonged to. This article relies heavily on a virtually unstudied hagiographic work, Futuh al-wahhab wa-dala'il al-tullab ila manazil al-ahbab, dedicated to al-Mawsili, written by his grandson Nasir al-Din Muhammad b. Musa al-Mawsili (d. ca. 858/1454). (10) This manuscript offers a complementary perspective to that of the biographical dictionaries written by the ulema, and is of special importance since it includes--in addition to an exposition of al-Mawsili's teachings and deeds--revealing information on the consolidation of his tariqa.

AL-MAWSILI'S SUFI BACKGROUND

Abu Bakr b. 'A1i b. 'Abdallah al-Mawsili al-Shaybani was born in Mosul in 734/1333f. After attaining some basic religious education, he migrated to Damascus as a youth, around the year 750/1349f., and settled in the Qubaybat suburb. (11) There he continued his learning, concentrating on the Quran and fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), while earning his livelihood from weaving. He also spent a period of time in Jerusalem, where he lodged at the Salahiyya madrasa, before returning to Damascus. (12) Those two cities were to be the focus of his activity throughout the remaining decades of his life: he would establish a zawiya (Sufi convent) in each one, and spend his time moving back and forth between them.

Abu Bakr al-Mawsili was initiated into Sufism in Damascus by Qutb al-Din al-'Ajami, who was his only shaykh. (13) Very little information can be found regarding this Qutb al-Din (alternatively al-Dimashqi, al-Ardabili, al-Isfahandi, al-Isfahani, al-Isfahidi, or al-Isfahabandi), (14) even though he seems to have been an important authority in fourteenth-century Syrian Sufism. In fact, only Ibn Qadi Shuhba devotes a biographical entry (tarjama) to him in his chronicle, which he copied from his master, Ibn Hijji; a bit more information on Qutb al-Din's beginnings is provided in Futuh al-wahhab. (15) Qutb al-Din was instructed in Sufism by Burhan al-Din Ibrahim al-Sagharji, who initiated him into the Suhrawardi-Kubrawi spiritual chain of authorities (silsila). (16) 1 propose, with great certainty, that Qutb al-Din is to be identified as the author of the popular Sufi manual al-Risala al-makkiyya, which is very similar in style and content to al-Suhrawardi's Adab al-murtdin. (17) This clearly situates Qutb al-Din's Sufi bent within the Suhrawardi-Kubrawi tradition, which was very much the mainstream of contemporary Sufism.

According to Futuh al-wahhab, Abu Bakr al-Mawsili first met Qutb al-Din in a session (majlis) that the latter used to hold in the Umayyad Mosque, a meeting that, suitably enough, Qutb al-Din foresaw through his divine intuition two years in advance and al-Mawsili envisioned in a dream well before it took place. Qutb al-Din then initiated al-Mawsili into Sufism by investing him with the khirqat al-tabarruk (robe of blessing), teaching him the dhikr (talqin al-dhikr), and authorizing him to initiate disciples into the Path. (18) Since I am not aware of any other lineages Abu Bakr al-Mawsili was initiated into, we should dismiss the assertion that he was related to the Qadiri tariqa. (19) In fact, it was only later that his tariqa became affiliated with the Qadiriyya, after his son Ibrahim was invested with the khirqa by the Qadiri Ibn al-Nasih, as will be discussed below. Be that as it may, the fact of the matter is that in the reality of fourteenth-century Syrian Sufism, and especially considering the social networks to which al-Mawsili was connected, we should not place much emphasis on his affiliation to one tariqa or another. The important point is that he was part of the more conservative milieu of Sufism, which emphasized strict observance of the Sharia as the foundation of Sufi etiquette, and of which the Suhrawardi and Qadiri turuq were probably the most representative. (20)

AL-MAWSILT AND THE ULEMA

This mainstream Sufi tradition regarded strict observance of the Sharia and study of the Quran and the hadith as the foundations upon which any advancement on the Sufi path must be based. These Sufis shared much with the ulema, so that it is not that easy to draw a line between them. In the biographical dictionaries of the Mamluk period, it is quite common to find ulema who are lauded for their asceticism (zuhd) and other qualities commonly attributed to Sufis, just as it is common to read of Sufis immersed in traditional learning. (21) Likewise, in his writings al-Mawsili emphasized the importance of learning the Quran, hadith, and fiqh, of strictly complying with Sharia prescriptions, and of abiding by high moral standards (adab). (22) It is said that he even made his disciples attach a piece of paper to their forehead on which was written the slogan al-tasawwuf al-khuluq al-hasan al-nabawi ("Sufism is the noble, prophetic moral character"). (23) As is also evident in the biographical writings about him, he viewed this as the first and most important principle in the initiation of the Sufi novice.

Al-Mawsili himself was highly learned in the traditional Islamic sciences. An affiliate of the Shafi'i and Ash'ari schools, he composed several works on fiqh and is...