FOSTERING RESILIENCE IN THE AFTERMATH OF DIVORCE: The Role of Evidence‐Based Programs for Children

• Author: JoAnne L. Pedro‐Carroll
• Published date: 01 January 2005
• DOI: http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-1617.2005.00007.x
• Date: 01 January 2005

FAMILY COURT REVIEW, Vol. 43 No. 1, January 2005 52–64

© 2005 Association of Family and Conciliation Courts

Blackwell Publishing, Ltd.Oxford, UKFCRExxx0000-0000© Blackwell Publishing 2004XXXOriginal Article

Pedro-Carroll / Fostering resilience in the aftermath of divorceJoAnne Pedro-Carroll, Ph.D.

FOSTERING RESILIENCE IN THE AFTERMATH

OF DIVORCE:

The Role of Evidence-Based Programs for Children

JoAnne L. Pedro-Carroll

University of Rochester Children’s Institute

The negative impact of divorce is a concern with far-reaching ramifications for children’s well-being. This article

reviews divorce-related risks and protective factors that provide an empirical guide for the content of effective

programs for children. The promising potential of child-focused interventions is highlighted, including examples

of programs with evidence of effectiveness. The Children of Divorce Intervention Program is described in greater

detail as an example of a preventive program with six controlled studies documenting multiple benefits to

children, including reductions in anxiety, behavior problems, somatic symptoms, and increases in their healthy

adjustment at home and at school. A vision for future research and practice is discussed, including best practices

for adapting children’s programs to court-connected services and a paradigm shift involving systematic preven-

tive outreach to all separating parents with minor children, before difficulties become rooted and chronic.

Keywords:

children and divorce

;

children’s group program

;

preventive intervention

;

evidence-based program

Divorce is one of the most dramatic changes shaping contemporary family life in the

United States over the past century. Currently, demographic estimates suggest that nearly

half of first marriages end in divorce, affecting over one million children each year. The

high rate of marital disruption, combined with an increase in births outside of marriage,

means that about half of all children will spend at least some portion of their lives in a

single-parent household (Castro & Bumpass, 1989). Add to these changes the fact that

divorce rates are higher in remarriage–one in three children will live with a stepparent

for some time (Glick, 1989), and we begin to understand the complex serial changes and

challenges that children face over an extended period of time.

Divorcing parents and their children rate this process as one of the most stressful life

changes (Hetherington, Cox, & Cox, 1982). Parental divorce entails a series of transitions

and family reorganizations that influence children’s adjustment over time, including

changes in residence, family relationships, and standard of living. In the early stages, as

family life changes dramatically, most children experience considerable distress. Worries

about the future, as children wonder “what will happen to me?” appear to be a nearly universal

reaction among children of all ages. These feelings of sadness and vulnerability may underlie

the higher rates of depression, anxiety, and interpersonal difficulties found in some studies

(Hoyt, Cowen, Pedro-Carroll, & Alpert-Gillis, 1990). Increased mental health problems for

children are related to higher levels of postdivorce stressors such as protracted conflict,

parental instability, changes in family relationships, loss of time with parents, relocation,

and economic decline (Sandler, Wolchik, Braver, & Fogas, 1991).

Meta-analytic studies suggest that divorce poses specific risks for children that can

endure, but there is some controversy about the magnitude of the negative impact. While the

average effect sizes are small, longitudinal studies suggest that the long-term effects for some

children may be quite enduring with heightened risk of difficulties in adulthood, including

lower socioeconomic status, poorer subjective well-being, increased marital problems,