Fear of Crime among Female North Korean Defectors in South Korea

• Author: Tay Hack,Jaeyong Choi,Julak Lee
• Published date: 01 February 2022
• Date: 01 February 2022
• DOI: 10.1177/0306624X21992362
• Subject Matter: Articles

https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X21992362

International Journal of

Offender Therapy and

Comparative Criminology

2022, Vol. 66(2-3) 227 –248

© The Author(s) 2021

Article reuse guidelines:

sagepub.com/journals-permissions

DOI: 10.1177/0306624X21992362

journals.sagepub.com/home/ijo

Article

Fear of Crime among

Female North Korean

Defectors in South Korea

Jaeyong Choi1, Tay Hack1,

and Julak Lee2

Abstract

Although some studies have focused on immigrants’ fear of crime in the United

States, it is important to point out that the number of North Korean defectors

to South Korea has rapidly increased since the 1990s. Therefore, understanding

factors associated with fear of crime for North Korean immigrants, especially female

defectors, is important for ensuring their successful transitions into South Korean

culture. The present study used existing survey data from a sample of female North

Korean defectors to explore factors related to fear of crime. Results indicate that

the number of North Korean friends, language proficiency, and patriarchal attitudes

toward gender were significant predictors of fear of crime for the North Korean

female defectors. Findings are described and discussed as a potential source for

policymaking to reduce North Korean immigrants’ acculturative stress and fear of

crime and to encourage smooth transitions into new cultures.

Keywords

fear of crime, North Korean defectors, acculturation, patriarchal attitudes

Introduction

While a large body of research investigating fear of crime has provided a rich source

of information, very little research has addressed the issue of fear of crime among

immigrants (cf. Brown & Benedict, 2004; Lee & Ulmer, 2000; Luo & Zhao, 2017; Wu

1Angelo State University, San Angelo, TX, USA

2Chung-Ang University, Seoul, South Korea

Corresponding Author:

Julak Lee, Department of Industrial Security, Chung-Ang University, 84 Heukseok-ro, Dongjak-gu, 06974

Seoul, South Korea.

Email: julaklee71@cau.ac.kr

992362IJOXXX10.1177/0306624X21992362International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative CriminologyChoi et al.

research-article2021

228 International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 66(2-3)

& Wen, 2014). The noticeable gap in this line of work is critical considering that many

countries are experiencing rapid growth of ethnic minority populations while trying to

help immigrants successfully adjust to their host societies (Castles et al., 2013).

Virtually all researchers exploring fear of crime among immigrants have employed

samples of immigrants residing in the United States (e.g., Ackah, 2000; Brown &

Benedict, 2004; Grubb & Bouffard, 2014; Sundeen, 1984). While these studies offer

valuable information regarding the impacts of immigrant-specific factors (e.g., lan-

guage proficiency, length of stay) on fear of crime, their external validity is limited.

Examining fear of crime among samples of immigrants in different sociopolitical set-

tings is crucial for a broader understanding of the scope, nature, and extent of fear of

crime among immigrants and has the potential to address external validity concerns by

replicating important findings from previous studies.

The current study makes several contributions to the growing research on fear of

crime among immigrants. First, we used a sample of female North Korean defectors to

examine factors related to fear of crime. This is especially important because the num-

ber of North Korean defectors in South Korea has been rapidly increasing since the

1990s due to economic, financial, and humanitarian reasons (Lankov, 2014). Currently,

more than 33,000 North Korean defectors are residing in South Korea (Ministry of

Unification, 2019), and thousands more attempt to escape North Korea each year

(Taylor et al., 2017). Although North Koreans share some history, symbols, and cus-

toms with South Koreans, and their physical appearance is indistinguishable from that

of South Koreans, North Korean defectors are often subject to discrimination due to

cultural differences and dialect (Kim & Lee, 2009). For example, many North Korean

defectors report difficulties in adjusting to South Korea because of challenges involv-

ing identity crisis and financial hardships (Choi et al., 2017; Park et al., 2017).

Second, with this study we are among the first to consider the effect of patriarchal

attitudes on fear of crime among female immigrants. Critical and feminist scholars

have argued that social structures can shape individuals’ perceptions of gender roles

(Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005; West & Zimmerman, 2009). For instance, when

gender inequalities are institutionalized, and when patriarchal gender relations are nor-

malized and accepted as common cultural templates, individuals may develop patriar-

chal norms that masculinity and femininity are natural and critical properties of all

men and women (West & Zimmerman, 2009). Some scholars contend that men seek

to exercise their power and dominance over women through fear and that women are

constantly worried about the possibility of being attacked by men (Pain, 1991; Stanko,

1995; Valentine, 1989). While researchers have hinted at the possibility that internal-

ized patriarchal attitudes can influence fear of crime among women (Cobbina et al.,

2008; Day, 2001; Stanko, 1995), a lack of data with measures that capture women’s

patriarchal attitudes has been a major limitation to the literature on fear of crime. As a

step to advance the understanding of the fear of crime, we used the current study to test

whether patriarchal attitudes are related to fear of crime among female North Korean

defectors.

Finally, we employed several key variables (e.g., number of close North Korean

defectors in South Korea, regular participation in a social group) to measure