Family strengths among Native American families and families living in poverty: Preventing adverse childhood experiences

• Published date: 01 December 2023
• Author: Natira Mullet,Emily A. Waterman,Katie M. Edwards,Briana Simon,Skyler Hopfauf,Ramona Herrington
• Date: 01 December 2023
• DOI: http://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12906

RESEARCH

Family strengths among Native American families

and families living in poverty: Preventing adverse

childhood experiences

Natira Mullet

1

|Emily A. Waterman

2

|Katie M. Edwards

3

|

Briana Simon

3

|Skyler Hopfauf

3

|Ramona Herrington

3

1

Human Development and Family Science,

North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND

2

Developmental Psychology, Bennington

College, Bennington, VT

3

Nebraska Center for Research on Children,

Youth, Families and Schools, University of

Nebraska–Lincoln, Lincoln, NE

Correspondence

Natira Mullet, Human Development and

Family Science, North Dakota State

University, 1310 Centennial Boulevard, 283G,

Fargo, ND 58108-6050, USA.

Email: natira.mullet@ndsu.edu

Funding information

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,

Grant/Award Number: 51437

Abstract

Objective: The purpose of this study was to understand

how youth, caregivers, and community professionals perceive

family strengths and adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)

in their community. Specifically, this study was focused on the

protective role of caregivers and families, positive youth

development, and how Native American families and families

living in poverty support adolescents’social–emotional devel-

opment and help them thrive in the face of adversity.

Background: Research documents the concerning rates and

negative outcomes of ACEs. However, very little research

has examined the views of families and professionals on how

to prevent ACES among these populations.

Method: Participantswereyouthaged10to14 years

(n=20), caregivers (n=13), and an occupationally

diverse group of professionals whose work intersected with

ACEs (n=7). Participants were all Native American

and/or living in poverty in a small city in the Northern

Plains region of the United States.

Results: Themes that emerged from the child and caregiver

focus groups regarding protective factors included (a) family

engagement, (b) family and cultural values, (c) personal and

family safety, (d) future orientation, and (e) community

strengths and needs. Themes that emerged from the pro-

fessionals’focus group included (a) families in crisis,

(b) intersectionality of family challenges, (c) community

Author note: Funding for this project was provided by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, OSP 51437, OSP form #133283. The

findings and conclusions in this presentation are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position of the Centers

for Disease Control and Prevention.

Received: 2 December 2021Revised: 14 March 2023Accepted: 23 April 2023

DOI: 10.1111/fare.12906

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License, which permits

use and distribution in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, the use is non-commercial and no modifications or

adaptations are made.

© 2023 The Authors. Family Relations published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of National Council on Family Relations.

2334 Family Relations. 2023;72:2334–2352.

wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/fare

collaboration, (d) trauma-informed practices and vio-

lence prevention, and (e) cultural connections.

Conclusion and implications: These data provided founda-

tional information relevant to understanding families’

strengths and needs and the important role of culture in

program development to prevent ACEs.

KEYWORDS

adverse childhood experiences, culture, family strengths, trauma

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are a public health epidemic in the United States. ACEs

are upsetting or potentially traumatic events that occur in children from birth to age 17 (Centers

for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2019). ACEs include childhood abuse

(i.e., physical, sexual, psychological, neglect) and various aspects of household dysfunction such

as parent/caregiver substance abuse, mental illness, incarceration, and separation/divorce

(CDC, 2019). ACEs also include parent/caregiver death, exposure to intimate partner violence

among caregivers, experiencing discrimination, exposure to neighborhood violence, and eco-

nomic hardship (CDC, 2019). Rates of ACEs are higher among some populations of individ-

uals, such Native Americans (Kenney & Singh, 2016; Warne et al., 2017). In fact, in South

Dakota, where the current study took place, Native Americans were nearly 3 times as likely as

White individuals to report experiencing five or more ACEs as a child (Sacks et al., 2014). More

specifically, whereas 6% of White adults reported experiencing five or more ACEs as a child,

17% of Native American adults reported experiencing five or more ACEs as a child (Warne

et al., 2017). Research suggests that although they are varied, experiences of ACEs frequently

co-occur and are similar in their impact (Bucci et al., 2016; Giano et al., 2020), and the greater

the number of ACEs experienced, the more deleterious the outcomes (Petruccelli et al., 2019).

ACEs have been consistently associated with a host of short- and long-term deleterious out-

comes (CDC, 2019), and thus the prevention of ACEs is an important public health priority, as

are efforts to help build resilience in the face of ACEs (Finkelhor, 2020; Shalev et al., 2016;

Warne et al., 2017). ACEs among Native Americans must be understood within the context of

colonialism and the multiple historical traumas that have resulted in the dehumanization, invisi-

bility, and disposability of Native American people (A. M. K. Pacheco, 2009). Before coloniza-

tion, traditional tribal communities were historically egalitarian, structured to show respect for

one another and viewed children as sacred beings who are to be protected (Deer, 2015;

Smith, 2003). However, through government policies, establishment of reservations, creation of

boarding schools, genocide, and forced assimilation, Native Americans have experienced sys-

tematic and persistent loss of land, language, and cultural identity. These adversities, known as

historical traumas, have resulted in the normalization of violence, substance use, incarceration,

and parental absence (i.e., ACEs; CDC, 2019). Further, while the transmission of ACEs across

generations has yet to be fully explored, these events may have major implications for Native

families and the intergenerational transmission of this trauma.

Intergenerational transmission of trauma describes the secondary impact of trauma that is

experienced from one generation to the next within family systems (Gone, 2013). Specifically,

intergenerational transmission oftrauma may occur through relationshipdysfunction within the

family unit (Vasquez et al., 2014). In addition to children’s own experiences, their caregivers’

experiences can also play an important role inchildren’s functioning and well-being (Stargel &

Easterbrooks, 2020). For example, families are still dealing with the repercussions of cultural

genocide via the use ofboarding schools to remove children from their communities and assimi-

late them into colonized traditions and belief systems (Running Bear et al., 2018). Despite these

atrocities, Native American families are highly resilient (M. Freeman & Ammerman, 2021).

FAMILY STRENGTHS TO PREVENT ACES2335