Factors of Recidivism among Individuals with Co-occurring Conditions in Rural Mental Health Jail Interventions

• Author: Erin Comartin,Tamarie Willis,Sheryl Kubiak,Grant A. Victor
• Date: 01 May 2022
• Published date: 01 May 2022
• DOI: 10.1177/0306624X211013521
• Subject Matter: Articles

https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X211013521

International Journal of

Offender Therapy and

Comparative Criminology

2022, Vol. 66(6-7) 758 –773

© The Author(s) 2021

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DOI: 10.1177/0306624X211013521

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Article

Factors of Recidivism among

Individuals with Co-occurring

Conditions in Rural Mental

Health Jail Interventions

Grant A. Victor1, Erin Comartin1,

Tamarie Willis1, and Sheryl Kubiak1

Abstract

Estimates indicate that nearly half of rural jail detainees meet the criteria for co-

occurring disorders (COD). It is critical to examine factors of recidivism among

detainees with COD in rural communities. This exploratory study aimed to examine

factors of recidivism among adults in rural jails. Administrative data sources were

utilized to assess postyear recidivism among 191 individuals with COD who

participated in a jail-based intervention. Results indicated that a greater number

of previous jail bookings and not receiving continuity of care were the strongest

associations of overall recidivism, and a greater number of previous jail bookings

was associated with of multiple recidivism events. The protective effect of receiving

continuity of care was diminished in reducing recidivism 4- to 12-months following jail

release. Re-entry services should consider developing or further expand specialized

psychiatric care parole and connections to evidence-based integrated dual diagnosis

treatment with a focus on programs with adaptability for rurality.

Keywords

recidivism, justice-involved, mental health, substance use, co-occurring disrder

Introduction

In 2017, city and county jails in the United States (US) reported a total confined popu-

lation of 745,200 detainees (Zeng, 2020), and recent federal and state reform initia-

tives have focused on curtailing the number of people admitted to urban jails. There is

1Center for Behavioral Health and Justice, School of Social Work, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI,

USA

Corresponding Author:

Grant A. Victor, Center for Behavioral Health and Justice, School of Social Work, Wayne State

University, 5201 Cass Avenue, Detroit, MI 48202, USA.

Email: grantvictor@wayne.edu

1013521IJOXXX10.1177/0306624X211013521International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative CriminologyVictor et al.

research-article2021

Victor et al. 759

an indication that these reform efforts have been successful in urban areas, as jail

admissions have declined; yet, as urban jail populations have curtailed, rural jail popu-

lations have seen the largest growth (Kaeble & Cowhig, 2016; Riley et al., 2018).

Although recidivism is a salient issue in correctional institutions, national estimates on

recidivism in rural areas are limited (Kopak et al., 2019), as recent data are primarily

representative of prison populations within urban and metropolitan areas.

Generally, several factors have been strong and consistent predictors of recidivism;

including, being non-white (Durose & Cooper, 2005), being male (Yang et al., 2015),

being unemployed (Jhi & Joo, 2009; Staton-Tindall et al., 2015), and having a sub-

stance use disorder (Kopak et al., 2019; Staton-Tindall et al., 2015). Environment and

setting may also be factors of recidivism according to a that found participants who

recidivated shared similar risk factors, but individuals living in urban areas were 2.4

times more likely to recidivate (Staton-Tindall et al., 2015). There is also evidence that

having a prior criminal history is more likely to predict recidivism in rural communi-

ties compared to urban communities (Staton-Tindall et al., 2015).

Individuals in the criminal/legal system have problems associated with behavioral

health conditions and there is evidence demonstrating high prevalence and severity

among rural detainees (Raggio et al., 2017). Problems such as serious mental illness

(SMI), substance use disorder (SUD), and co-occurring disorders (CODs) have greater

prevalence rates among jail detainees as compared to prisoners (Bronson, 2017). Prior

studies indicate that individuals with CODs are more likely to be detained, remain for

longer periods, and recidivate more quickly to local jail (Castillo & Fiftal Alarid, 2011;

Chandler & Spicer, 2006; Kopak et al., 2019; Mueser et al., 2001; Pandiani et al.,

2003; Wilson et al., 2011). There is evidence suggesting that CODs significantly

increases an individual’s likelihood of arrest, where the relationship between SMI and

arrest was mediated by co-occurring substance use (Swartz & Lurigio, 2007). Kopak

et al. (2019) found that SMI and SUD presented disproportionately among participants

who were readmitted to jail, and that SUDs were the most robust indicator of multiple

12-month jail readmissions. Interestingly, the authors also reported that SMI nor SUD

were associated with any single jail admission during the 12-month follow-up period

(Kopak et al., 2019).

Although previous literature has established valid connections between CODs and

recidivism (Gallagher et al., 2018; Houser et al., 2019; Kopak et al., 2019; Wilson

et al., 2011), significant gaps remain regarding the factors that are associated with

recidivism in rural communities. Many studies that have included jail populations

have recruited data from large metropolitan urban areas; although, most local deten-

tion centers are situated in semi-urban or rural areas (Applegate & Sitren, 2008). There

may also be utility in examining jail recidivism as a proxy of available community

resources for individuals with CODs, particularly in rural areas where resources are

more limited, and therefore, continuity of care following jail release may not be pro-

vided (Dotson et al., 2014; Mhs & Gale, 2008). Rural jails are opportune sites for

examining how those with CODs may navigate social services because jail facilities

often operate as de facto community behavioral health hubs, and the relatively quick

turnover in jails provides a more representative community sample (Belenko et al.,