Examination of the Weinberger Adjustment Inventory—Short Form Among Portuguese Young Adults: Psychometrics and Measurement Invariance

• Author: Pedro Pechorro,Matt DeLisi,Andreia Freitas,Rui Abrunhosa Gonçalves,Cristina Nunes
• DOI: http://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X211066838
• Published date: 01 June 2023
• Date: 01 June 2023
• Subject Matter: Articles

https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X211066838

International Journal of

Offender Therapy and

Comparative Criminology

2023, Vol. 67(8) 803 –821

© The Author(s) 2022

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DOI: 10.1177/0306624X211066838

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Article

Examination of the

Weinberger Adjustment

Inventory—Short Form

Among Portuguese Young

Adults: Psychometrics and

Measurement Invariance

Pedro Pechorro1, Matt DeLisi2,

Andreia Freitas1, Rui Abrunhosa Gonçalves1,

and Cristina Nunes3

Abstract

The Weinberger Adjustment Inventory—Short Form (WAI-SF) is a multidimensional

measure of behavioral adjustment frequently used with forensic, clinical, and

community populations. However, no previous studies have examined the WAI-

SF from a more modern psychometric perspective including second-order models,

measurement invariance and a better estimation of reliability. The current sample

is composed of female and male young adults (N = 610, M = 21.33 years, SD = 3.09,

range = 18–37) from a university context in Portugal. Results indicated that both the

four-factor intercorrelated and the four-factor second order models of the WAI-SF

Distress and Restraint scales showed good fits. The WAI-SF Distress and Restraint

scales were negatively and significantly correlated, and the intercorrelations between

the subscales of each scale ranged from moderate to high. The WAI-SF scales and

subscales mostly showed adequate to good reliability in terms of McDonald’s Omega

and the more traditional Cronbach’s Alpha. Strong cross-gender measurement

invariance was demonstrated, with females scoring significantly higher than males

on the Anxiety subscale of the Distress scale, and on the Suppression of Aggression,

Impulse Control, Consideration of Others, Responsibility subscales, and Restraint

1University of Minho, Braga, Portugal

2Iowa State University, Ames, USA

3University of Algarve & Psychology Research Centre, Faro, Portugal

Corresponding Author:

Pedro Pechorro, School of Psychology, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, Braga4710-057,

Portugal.

Email: ppechorro@gmail.com

1066838IJOXXX10.1177/0306624X211066838International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative CriminologyPechorro et al.

research-article2022

804 International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 67(8)

scale. The WAI-SF scales and subscales showed distinctive correlates with other

measures (e.g., low self-control, psychopathy) and variables (e.g., delinquency

seriousness, substance use). Considering our findings, the use of the WAI-SF

is recommended among the Portuguese young adult population and its use in

criminological research is encouraged.

Keywords

adjustment, assessment, Weinberger Adjustment Inventory—Short Form (WAI-SF),

validation

Introduction

Psychopathology is a broad concept that encapsulates an individual’s mental disorder

symptoms and psychiatric impairment. Although psychopathology is highly heteroge-

neous, two superordinate features of psychopathology relate to inwardly damaging

features known as internalizing symptoms that primarily manifest as anxiety and

depression and outwardly damaging features known as externalizing symptoms that

primarily manifest as aggression and conduct problems (Achenbach, 1966; Achenbach

& Edelbrock, 1978; Markon, 2010; Wright et al., 2013). Given that both internalizing

and externalizing features have significant associations with behavioral maladjust-

ment and conduct problems, respectively (Achenbach et al., 2016; Memmott-Elison

et al., 2020; Muniz et al., 2019; Soto-Sanz et al., 2019; Vaughn et al., 2011; Wibbelink

et al., 2017), researchers strive to devise measures that incorporate both dimensions

when assessing behavioral functioning among diverse populations.

The Weinberger Adjustment Inventory (WAI; Weinberger, 1991; Weinberger &

Schwartz, 1990) was created to assess long-term social-emotional adjustment, the

ability to minimize subjective distress while accommodating to the demands of exter-

nal reality to achieve desired outcomes. The WAI-Short Form (WAI-SF) has the same

multidimensional structure of the original WAI, but with only 37 items. Keeping with

a broad conceptualization of psychopathology that encompasses internalizing and

externalizing dimensions, the WAI and WAI-SF were developed to be used with older

children and adults, and are composed of two primary scales. The Distress scale

includes the four subscales Anxiety, Depression, Low Self-Esteem, and Low Well-

Being and the Restraint scale includes the four subscales Impulse Control, Suppression

of Aggression, Consideration of Others, and Responsibility. Individuals who are able

to achieve a balance between Distress and Restraint are those who show better adjust-

ment. There are two defensiveness scales, Denial of Distress and Repressive

Defensiveness, which refer to defensiveness about normative experiences of distress

and to claims of nearly absolute restraint, respectively, and a validity scale.

Theoretically, the Distress scale would have associations with internalizing features

and the Restraint scale would have associations with externalizing features (Cauffman

et al., 2004; Farrell & Sullivan, 2000; Feldman & Weinberger, 1994; Huckaby et al.,

1998).