Do Greener Trade Agreements Call for Side-Payments?
Author | Clara Brandi,Frederik Stender,Jean-Frédéric Morin |
DOI | 10.1177/10704965221076070 |
Published date | 01 June 2022 |
Date | 01 June 2022 |
Subject Matter | Articles |
Article
The Journal of Environment &
Development
2022, Vol. 31(2) 111–138
© The Author(s) 2022
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DOI: 10.1177/10704965221076070
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Do Greener Trade
Agreements Call for
Side-Payments?
Clara Brandi
1
, Jean-Fr ´
ed´
eric Morin
2
and
Frederik Stender
1
Abstract
Preferential trade agreements (PTAs) increasingly include environmental provisions.
While the existing literature documents these provisions’environmental impacts, this
paper sheds light on their relation with aid flows. Using an event-specification and data
on bilateral Official Development Assistance (ODA) commitments for a sample of 147
developing country recipients in the period from 2002 to 2017, we find evidence that
the number of environmental provisions in PTAs is positively associated with aid during
negotiation phases. With high-income countries typically pre-determining the extent of
environmental provisions in their upcoming PTAs, this suggests that aid serves as a side-
payment for recipients to sweeten the pot and agree upon already formulated PTA
content. While both aggregate ODA and its subcomponent environmental aid a priori
qualify as candidates for pre-signature side-payments, we find that only the former
fulfills this expectation, presumably reflecting more leeway to exploit aid fungibility.
Keywords
environmental provisions, official development assistance, preferential trade agreements,
trade and environment, trade policy
Introduction
Preferential trade agreements (PTAs) are becoming greener. Environmental provisions
in PTAs have been proliferating and are increasingly diverse and extensive. Recent
1
German Development Institute/Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE), Bonn, Germany
2
Canada Research Chair in International Political Economy, Universit´
e Laval, Quebec City, Canada
Corresponding Author:
Frederik Stender, German Development Institute/Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE),
Tulpenfeld 6, Bonn 53113, Germany.
Email: frederik.stender@die-gdi.de
PTAs, such as the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) or the Eu-
ropean Union-Vietnam Free Trade Agreement (EVFTA), include far-reaching envi-
ronmental chapters. Some of these provisions entail so-called environmental
exceptions that allow countries to restrict trade to protect biodiversity or conserve
natural resources similar to those in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT)of 1947 (article XX(b) ). Other environmental provisions are more prescriptive.
For example, environmental provisions in PTAs can promote the harmonization of
environmental policies, require the ratification of multilateral environmental agree-
ments (MEAs), or call for greater inclusion of civil society organizations in envi-
ronmental lawmaking. Environmental provisions cover a manifold of environmental
issues, such as limiting deforestation, protecting fish stocks, reducing hazardous waste,
and mitigating CO
2
emissions.
PTAs offer several benefits over MEAs for the negotiation of environmental ob-
ligations. These benefits include the facilitation of trade-offs across diverse issue-areas,
and stronger mechanisms to ensure compliance and enforcement. As a result, some
PTAs set environmental obligations that are more precise, more stringent, and more
enforceable than those contained in MEAs (Jinnah & Lindsay, 2016;Jinnah & Morin,
2020).
These developments appear to have positive impacts on the environment. Recent
studies have found that the signing of PTAs with environmental provisions is related to
the adoption of domestic environmental regulation (Brandi et al., 2019), reductions of
carbon dioxide emissions (Baghdadi et al., 2013), decreases in suspended particulate
matter (Mart´
ınez-Zarzoso & Oueslati, 2018;Zhou et al., 2017), and improvements in
overall environmental performance (Bastiaens & Postnikov, 2017).
1
Indeed, while the
specific patterns vary across analyses, existing studies provide evidence that some
environmental benefits are occurring both in high-income as well as in developing
countries.
This paper explores the bargaining process that drives the trend of linking trade and
environmental policy. Notably, some developing countries are reluctant to include
certain environmental provisions in their PTAs for fear that these provisions might
restrict their exports and limit their economic growth (Draper et al., 2017). By contrast,
high-income countries, often equipped with higher domestic environmental standards,
insist on promoting their own environmental standards in their trade agreements with
developing countries (Blümer et al., 2020). Since foreign aid operates as a side-
payment in various policy fields (Alesina & Dollar, 2000;Baccini & Urpelainen, 2012;
Dreher et al., 2008;Kuziemko & Werker, 2006), we hypothesize that one attractive
solution is to raise development assistance to increasing acceptance of environmental
provisions in PTAs. Exchanging aid for environmental provisions might benefit both
donors seeking to include environmental provision in trade agreements and recipients
in need of financial resources.
Such linkage between PTA negotiations and aid commitment is not surprising given
substantial coordination between the actors negotiating PTAs and those responsible for
providing aid. For example, the Office of the US Trade Representative underlines the
importance of linking trade and development and the importance of interagency
112 The Journal of Environment & Development 31(2)
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