Death by Police Shooting in Australia: Understanding Lethal Force Decisions Through a Sequence Analysis of Behavior

• Author: Louise E. Porter
• DOI: http://doi.org/10.1177/10887679221123084
• Published date: 01 February 2023
• Date: 01 February 2023
• Subject Matter: Special Issue Articles

https://doi.org/10.1177/10887679221123084

Homicide Studies

2023, Vol. 27(1) 167 –186

© 2022 SAGE Publications

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DOI: 10.1177/10887679221123084

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Special Issue Article

Death by Police Shooting

in Australia: Understanding

Lethal Force Decisions

Through a Sequence Analysis

of Behavior

Louise E. Porter1

Abstract

Police officers’ use of lethal force is scrutinized to determine the appropriateness

of the decision to shoot. However, surprisingly little research has systematically

examined the sequence of behaviors that leads to this decision. This study content

analyzed coronial reports of 58 deaths by police shooting in Australia, coding

behavioral and situational features. A novel sequence analysis method—the proximity

coefficient—was used to determine the proximities of police and subject behaviors

to interpret how police firearm presentation and discharge may be influenced by

preceding actions. Theoretical implications and practical applications for preventing

fatal outcomes are discussed.

Keywords

police shooting, officer involved shooting, lethal force, fatal force, police firearms,

suicide by cop

Police shootings provoke public scrutiny, with questions raised over the reasonable-

ness of the decision to use lethal force. Binder and Scharf (1982) highlighted that

decisions to shoot should be understood in the context of a sequence of actions, and

not just in the final moments of pulling the trigger. Since then, surprisingly little research

1Griffith University, Mount Gravatt, QLD, Australia

Corresponding Author:

Louise E. Porter, School of Criminology & Criminal Justice/Griffith Criminology Institute, Griffith

University, Mount Gravatt Campus, M10 Messines Ridge Road, Mount Gravatt, QLD 4121, Australia.

Email: l.porter@griffith.edu.au

1123084HSXXXX10.1177/10887679221123084Homicide StudiesPorter

research-article2022

168 Homicide Studies 27(1)

has endeavored to study use of force interactions as a sequence. The present study

adopts a method for exploring the behavior of both the officer and subject throughout

the course of an interaction in cases of fatal shooting by police. The paper aims to shed

light on the decision to shoot, including the level of force used relative to subject resis-

tance, the escalation of resistance and force, and characteristics of events that lead to

fatal outcomes.

Literature Review

Bolger (2015) conducted a meta analysis of 19 studies of police use of force and con-

cluded that “encounter characteristics” were the strongest correlates of force deci-

sions, suggesting that “the primary focus for future theories of use of force decisions

should be on what happens during the encounter” (p. 466). While that meta-analysis

was not constrained to lethal force, Wheeler et al. (2017) compared police shootings

and firearm presentations and concluded that situational factors of whether the suspect

was armed and an officer was injured were the best predictors of the decision to shoot.

Indeed, a number of studies have explored characteristics associated with officer

involved shootings, which identify some consistent important factors, particularly

regarding the circumstances of the incident and the behavior of the victim. Miller

(2015, p.102), in his review of the literature on deadly force, notes that “potential

deadly force encounters” occur in situations resulting either from a call for service or

officers witnessing a crime in progress. In Australia, Kesic et al. (2012) analyzed 45

coroners reports representing investigations of fatal police shootings in the state of

Victoria, Australia, between 1980 and 2008. The authors found that police officers

most commonly became involved with the purpose of arresting the deceased person in

an unplanned operation, and that decedents were aggressive and resisted arrest. In the

majority of cases the deceased person was armed. Few cases involved “less than

lethal” tools (11%), such as baton or spray (with the sampled cases occurring before

the introduction of Tasers). A third of cases involved communication attempts beyond

issuing commands but few involved attempts to negotiate.

In the sample of Australian cases analyzed by Kesic et al. (2012) the vast majority

had a history of offending and violent behavior. A mental disorder was present in over

half of decedents and substance use disorder was also common. These findings are

consistent with studies in other countries. Parent (2011) analyzed 30 cases of deadly

force in BC, Canada, deriving data from coroners’ reports, finding that a quarter

showed evidence of mental illness/suicidality. In the US, Saleh et al. (2018) found that

almost a quarter of those killed by police had a mental illness, and those with a mental

illness were more likely to be armed with a knife.

Further, Kesic et al. (2012) identified that one third of the police shootings met

criteria for a provoked shooting, or “suicide by police.” These cases were more likely

to involve the person threatening police with a weapon, refusing to drop the weapon

when commanded to do so, and advancing toward officers with a weapon. Miller

(2015) states that around 10% of US police shootings constitute “suicide by cop” and

these most frequently occur during a police response to armed robbery or domestic