Continuing the Collective Action Dilemma

• Published date: 01 September 2013
• Date: 01 September 2013
• DOI: 10.1177/1065912912456096
• Author: Shaun Bevan
• Subject Matter: Articles

456096PRQXXX10.1177/1065912912
456096Political Research QuarterlyBevan
Regular Article
Political Research Quarterly
66(3) 545 –558
Continuing the Collective Action
© 2012 University of Utah
Reprints and permissions:
sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
Dilemma: The Survival of Voluntary
DOI: 10.1177/1065912912456096
prq.sagepub.com
Associations in the United States
Shaun Bevan1
Abstract
Group populations take many different types of actions in order to influence government, but how those actions are
received depends on the traits of group populations. This article uses data on national-level voluntary associations in
the United States from 1974 to 1999 to investigate group survival and discuss how it affects representation. The results
demonstrate the existence of density dependence, significant positive effects for group-level resources, group-level
characteristics, and government attention on group survival. These findings also include counterintuitive significant
negative effects for public attention suggesting that increases in public attention lead to group replacement rather than
group survival.
Keywords
interest groups, representation, organizational ecology, associations
Representation is one of the key concerns of political sci-
to form. The continuing maintenance of an association is
ence as it goes to the very heart of democracy. Large vol-
just as important as its original formation. If a group does
umes of research on the representation of citizens focus
not survive, the fact that it overcame the collective action
on electoral behavior, the opinion-responsiveness of gov-
dilemma in the first place is a moot point (Walker 1983;
ernment, and on interest group advocacy. However,
Prakash and Potoski 2007). Groups must survive in order to
despite the high level of interest in representation some
serve their purpose, and representation through groups
questions particularly on the representation of groups are
requires experienced, well-known, and politically entrenched
left unanswered.
associations that are all characteristics that take time to
A great deal of work has focused on the collective
develop (Hansen 1991).
action dilemma that questions how and why some groups
What affects the survival of groups therefore directly
form when others do not. The formation of groups is an
affects group representation in government. The traits of
important process as beyond voting in elections groups
group populations, their average age, and the factors that
are the main means for the public to interact with govern-
affect group survival rates all affect group behavior and
ment. While advocacy is not the main purpose of all
how that behavior is viewed by government. Representation
groups, advocacy and non-advocacy groups alike can and
is not just about the actions a group takes but also the con-
do engage government when issues that concern them
text of those actions. It is not just what is said or done that
land on the political agenda. Furthermore, public concerns
affects representation but who is saying or doing it as
over issues are expressed through groups more often and
well.
more effectively than through individuals. While it may
Despite the importance of understanding group sur-
be true that the public chorus “sings with a strong upper-
vival, the factors that affect the longevity of groups are
class accent,” it is also true that in order for the public to
not well understood. This article tests several factors that
be effectively represented in the first place it must sing as
a chorus (Schattschneider 1960, 35).
1University of Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany
What affects the formation of groups is an important
and interesting question, but does not even tell half the
Corresponding Author:
Shaun Bevan, Mannheim Centre for European Social Research (MZES),
story of groups and their place within democratic repre-
University of Mannheim, Universität Mannheim, MZES, Mannheim
sentation. Collective action is a continual process and not
D-68131, Germany.
just a dilemma that must be overcome in order for a group
Email: shaun.bevan@gmail.com

---

546
Political Research Quarterly 66(3)
are theorized to affect group survival rates guided by lit-
same in that the benefits of group formation must out-
erature on collective action, interest group ecology, orga-
weigh the costs for a group to form rationally (Moe 1980;
nizational ecology, and organizational sociology. These
Hansen 1985; Rothenberg 1988). While the collective
factors include individual group characteristics, popula-
action literature generally focuses on formation and not
tion, and environmental-level factors. To accomplish this,
the survival of groups, a similar logic can be applied to
Encyclopedia of Associations (www.policyagendas.org)
group survival. Theoretical and empirical evidence dem-
data on public affair groups is used to test these factors on
onstrates that many of the same processes affect both
a representative sample of national-level voluntary asso-
group formation and organizational maintenance (Walker
ciations across several issues over a 26-year span. These
1983; Hansen 1985; Rothenberg 1988). In particular, the
analyses of group survival rates are conducted by way of
recruitment of new members and the ever-present free
parametric accelerated failure time (AFT) analyses using
rider problem follows groups for their entire lives (Prakash
shared frailty to control for different group formation dates.
and Potoski 2007). Therefore, the calculus of collective
The results demonstrate strong support for the majority of
action continues on beyond group formation, and the ben-
this article’s hypotheses including density dependence,
efits for maintaining the group must continue to outweigh
significant positive effects for group-level resources, gov-
the costs for the group to survive (Cigler 1991). Even suc-
ernment attention, group engagement in government cessfully formed groups continually face the collective
action, professional group memberships, and involvement
action dilemma.
in a social cause on group survival rates. These findings
Beyond the collective action literature, interest group
also include counterintuitive and significant negative
ecology studies have focused on the traits of group popu-
effects for public attention on group survival.
lations, such as group population densities and failure
rates. The largest limitation of this research has always
Understanding Group Survival
been data, in particular a lack of long time-series data that
allow for more complete ecological investigations. Because
Group survival has been studied in many fields and with
of these limitations, this work generally considers more
diverse motivations, producing several differences in the
restricted models than the ecological literature it is based
variables of interest in relation to group survival. The
on, with a strong emphasis of group population densities in
most comprehensive of these investigations focuses on
a cross-sectional design. This work has found that the pop-
business firms in no small part due to the quality of data
ulation density of groups changes with the number of
available on such groups. This literature finds that indi-
potential constituents, as government goods and services
vidual group characteristics, the relationship between
change and as the level of political stability fluctuates
competing groups, and the environment that groups face
(Lowery and Gray 1995). This literature has also focused
all play a significant role in group survival (Hannan and
on the effect of density dependence on the failure rate of
Freeman 1989; Carroll and Hannan 2000). This section
groups, finding that high population densities increase
discusses several social science literatures that focus on
group failure rates, but that this effect is conditional on the
one or more of these sets of factors in relation to group
composition of the group system, with certain types of
survival and concludes with a list of factors that affect
groups more negatively affected by density (Gray and
group survival based on individual group characteristics,
Lowery 1995, 2001). Event history analyses of the failure
density dependence, and environmental-level factors.
rate of gay and lesbian rights groups in the United States
To survive, groups must first be formed. The forma-
have found further evidence of density dependence, in the
tion of groups has generally been viewed as dilemma or a
form of a curvilinear relationship with group failure
problem that is difficult to overcome primarily because of
rates—specifically, that density decreases the likelihood
the free rider problem where the benefits of group mem-
of failure at low densities and increases the likelihood of
bership can often be had by non-members (Olson 1965).
failure once the equilibrium population density is reached
Many groups do however form when the costs or benefits
(Nownes and Lipinski 2005).
of membership are altered. Entrepreneurs that gain a par-
Political groups are not the only kind of groups that
ticularly large benefit from the creation of a group often off-
exist in society. Organizational ecology scholars consider
set the costs that potential members face (Salisbury 1969).
what factors influence the population traits of firms within
Multiple sources of benefits beyond material wealth can also
a particular industry...