Why it was rape: The conceptualization of rape in sumerian literature.

• Author: Gadotti, Alhena

INTRODUCTION

In an article published in NIN: Journal of Gender Studies in Antiquity, Jo Ann Scurlock argues that the encounter between Ninlil and Enlil in the Sumerian composition "Enlil and Ninlil" is not rape, but rather the "ruination of an unmarried woman." (1) She bases her argument on a comparative approach to the study of ancient documents according to which "information drawn from any source may be profitably compared with any other, provided that proper care is taken to avoid decontextualization." (2)

Scurlock interprets the episode within the framework of Sumerian and ancient Near Eastern law. (3) and concludes that there was indeed no rape in the modern sense of the term in the ancient Near East. Rather, "the Sumerian laws on intercourse with married women were intended to punish adultery, not rape ... [and] [t]he treatment of intercourse between unmarried persons in Sumerian law has even less to do with the crime of rape as we know it." (4)

A somewhat similar conclusion was reached by Gwendolyn Leick in 1994. She states that in texts such as "Enlil and Ninlil," "[t]he concept of rape is inappropriate ... since these myths are not concerned with social customs and institutions but portray the activities of deities in a world largely devoid of human regulations." (5)

In this study, I submit that the ancient Mesopotamians did have a concept of rape as we understand it and that a better way to interpret the rape of Ninlil is by comparing it with similar episodes in analogous compositions. Therefore, I will discuss Ninlil's deflowering in "Enlil and Ninlil" exclusively within the framework of Sumerian literary texts, and reevaluate it vis-a-vis the descriptions of the rape attested in two other Sumerian literary compositions.

DEFINITION OF RAPE

Before beginning my investigation, I wish to put forward a definition of rape as the act of forcing a woman or a man to submit to sexual intercourse against her or his will. (6) This definition is extremely broad and stresses the non-consensual element of the sexual act. It is important, however, to clarify my understanding of rape in the context of the present study, because definitions of rape tend to vary not only diachronically. but also synchronically.

RAPE IN SUMERIAN LITERARY TEXTS

At present, clear descriptions of rape are found in two Sumerian literary compositions: "Enki and Ninhursaga," where Enki rapes three of his daughters, and "Inana and Sukaletuda," in which the goddess Inana is raped by Sukaletuda.

The plots of these compositions are well known, and need not be summarized here; only the pertinent passages will be discussed. In particular, I will focus on the evidence to support the argument that these were rapes, the nature of the participants, and the consequences of the encounter. (7)

"ENKI AND NINHURSAGA"

The first composition describing rape is "Enki and Ninhursaga." (8) There is no consensus among scholars concerning the nature of Enki's abnormal sexual behaviors. Whereas there is no doubt that Enki has sexual relations with his daughters, who are all defined as 1 [u sub 2]- tur "young one," not all scholars read them as rape. (9)

Enki's first encounter, with the goddess Ninhursaga, is difficult to interpret. There does not seem to have been sexual contact between the two deities, but Ninhursaga becomes pregnant and after nine days Nin-nisig is born. Nin-nisig then becomes the object of Enki's sexual interest, and when she goes out to the marsh, Enki lusts after her and sets out to seduce her, as described in lines 98-101: (10)

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98. He put one foot on the boat.

99. He put the other (foot) on the dry land.

100. He grasped her by the chest and kissed her.

101. Enki ejaculated into her womb.

     The verb tab, "to seize," is employed to describe the rape, followed by (he more neutral ne ... su-ub. The expression gab a tab is also used to describe Enki's rape of his daughter, Ninkurra, later in the composition. In "Enki and Ninhursaga," force and coercion are used.

     The manuscript tradition is, however, not uniform. According to manuscript A (= CBS 4561) from Nippur, Ninkurra becomes pregnant with Uttu. Here the manuscript breaks off, but the narrative is resumed by manuscript C (AO 6724), of unknown provenience. In this version, Ninkurra becomes pregnant with Nin-imma, with whom Enki in (urn becomes infatuated (lines 11-14):

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11. First he put his foot on the boat.

12. Then, after having put it on the dry land,

13. He seized her by the chest and lying at her loins,

14. He copulated with the young one and kissed her.

    In this manuscript, the expected sequence is used in conjunction with the lexicon attested from manuscript A. (11) In both cases, however, the notion of force is maintained, thus indicating the non-consensual nature of the encounter.

    Enki's sexual encounter with Uttu is radically different from those with his other daughters. First, Ninhursaga warns Uttu about Enki's presence in the marshes (lines 128-32). Second, Uttu is instructed on how to behave when Enki ultimately approaches her. The passage is fragmentary and some 10-15 lines are missing, but it is clear that Uttu is advised about a specific course of action, which she duly follows. Third, Uttu's preparation for her encounter with Enki resembles that of a spouse waiting for the groom (lines 147-51):

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147. [pressed cucumbers],

148. apples in their ..., (12)

149. grapes in their bunches,

150. in the house(?) you shall hold my halter!

151. Enki, you shall hold my halter.

     The thematic parallels with the Love Songs, especially those relating the groom entering the bride's abode bearing gifts, are very strong in this section. (13) Before approaching Uttu's house, Enki assumes the identity of the gardener who had given him the goods he was to bring to Uttu (lines 167-76):

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167. Enki beautified his face and took a staff in his hand.

168. Enki walked to Uttu's (house).(14)

169. He knocked at her house: 'Open up! [Open up!]'

170. "Who are you?' (Uttu asked).

171. "1 am the gardener. I brought cucumbers, apples, and [grapes] for your satisfaction!"(15)

172. Joyfully, Uttu opened the house.

     I will return to the topos of the gardener later in this essay. Suffice it to say here that I do not believe it a coincidence that Enki assumes this specific identity when he approaches Uttu. (16) From the text, it is clear that Uttu is eager to meet with her suitor, as shown by her eagerness in opening the door of her house. The text is ambiguous as to whether Uttu is aware of the gardener's true identity, but Ninhursaga's warnings earlier in the composition suggest that Uttu knows exactly what is happening. (17) However, it is clear that the encounter between Enki and Uttu is not an attempted rape, but rather a failed sexual encounter.

     Three different rapes can therefore be identified in "Enki and Ninhursaga": they involve Nin-nisig, Ninkurra, and Nin-imma. In each of these cases a father has nonconsensual intercourse with his young and virgin daughters, the rape in this case being aggravated by...