Clarifying the meaning of fatherhood.

Wanted: Father. Must be able to help support family, care for children, cook and clean, be loving partner to wife and mother, and playmate to kids. Preference given to dependable candidates.

Fatherhood is a familiar function, but not one whose duties always are defined clearly, according to Robert Griswold, associate professor of history and women's studies, University of Oklahoma, and author of Fatherhood in America: A History. "There is a debate in society today over father's roles. Fatherhood has lost its cultural coherence. It's no longer clear what we want, what we expect from fathers."

American fatherhood has changed enormously in the past two centuries, notes Griswold, who drew upon surveys, magazines, scientific literature, letters to an advice columnist, government documents, historical works, autobiographies, newspaper articles, and memoirs for his research. Until recent times, the word "father" was almost synonymous with "breadwinner." During the 1920s and 1930s, though, social scientists and magazine editors encouraged men to take a more active role in their offspring's lives as intellectual and psychological role models. "The opinion was that fathers needed to be, in a sense, a buddy." However, these "buddies" weren't required to take on any of the daily chores of child rearing.

"When men were the sole breadwinners, that brought some obvious responsibilities and some real benefits for men," including higher pay scales and preferential treatment in the workplace. These practices continued even after World War II, when more and more females began entering the workforce. At the same time, women were expected to be almost completely responsible for the daily operations of the home. Griswold points out...