Be Still and You Will Know: A Mixed-Method Study on Solitude and Consideration of Future Consequences Among Youth in Rehabilitation

• Author: Cyanea Y. S. Poon,Christian S. Chan,Pauline P. L. Chau,Chun-Yin Chan
• DOI: http://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X211058955
• Published date: 01 May 2023
• Date: 01 May 2023
• Subject Matter: Articles

https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X211058955

International Journal of

Offender Therapy and

Comparative Criminology

2023, Vol. 67(6-7) 687 –706

© The Author(s) 2021

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DOI: 10.1177/0306624X211058955

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Article

Be Still and You Will Know:

A Mixed-Method Study on

Solitude and Consideration of

Future Consequences Among

Youth in Rehabilitation

Cyanea Y. S. Poon1, Christian S. Chan2,

Pauline P. L. Chau2, and Chun-Yin Chan2

Abstract

Although solitude is found to be undesirable to many, systematic practice of it

can yield positive psychological outcomes. This mixed-method study explored the

process and influence of solitude as a behavioral intervention among youths in a

therapeutic community in Hong Kong. Qualitative interviews with 43 youths (67.4%

male, mean age = 18.3) revealed that solitude facilitated growth in their sense of

personal responsibility, increased perspective-taking, increased respect for rules,

change in life attitudes, and growth in consideration of future consequences. A two-

wave prospective study (n = 79, 82.3% male, mean age = 17.4) further demonstrated

perceived meaningfulness in solitude predicted an increase in consideration of

future consequences, but not in other types of behavioral intervention. This study

preliminarily demonstrated solitude has beneficial outcomes among high-risk youths,

and meaning-making can facilitate this relationship.

Keywords

solitude, consideration of future consequences, high-risk youths, meaning-making

1University of Massachusetts Boston, MA, USA

2The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Corresponding Author:

Christian S. Chan, Department of Psychology, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.

Email: shaunlyn@hku.hk

1058955IJOXXX10.1177/0306624X211058955International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative CriminologyPoon et al.

research-article2021

688 International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 67(6-7)

Introduction

In this age of social media and connectivity, far and few between are opportunities to

be alone with one’s own thoughts. Recent studies suggest being alone doing nothing is

largely perceived as undesirable (Wilson et al., 2014). Yet, solitude has also been seen

as a means to cultivate virtue in many cultures and religions (Barbour, 2014). Does

solitude have any value in contemporary life, especially among digital natives? This

study seeks to examine the potential function of solitude among young people strug-

gling with behavioral issues, especially its influence on their ability to consider future

consequences.

Consideration of Future Consequences

The ability to envision the future has a causal relationship with a wide range of

behavioral outcomes over time (Joireman & King, 2016). Consideration of future

consequences (CFC) is a psychological construct that captures this capacity. It is

defined as “the extent to which people consider the potential distant outcomes of

their current behaviors and the extent to which they are influenced by these potential

outcomes” (Strathman et al., 1994, p. 743). Although it is moderately associated

with conscientiousness, self-control, and future time perspective, CFC is a distinct

construct with its unique set of predictors and consequences (for a review, see

Joireman & King, 2016).

Theorists have provided different conceptualizations of CFC, including the aware-

ness and concern models (Joireman et al., 2006). The awareness model considers CFC

to be a construct that influences the perceived consequences of one’s current choices,

and hence influences one’s preferences, intentions, and behaviors. The concern model

postulates that one’s behavior results from the interaction of CFC and perceived con-

sequences. A more holistic integrative model further considers contextual factors, such

as parenting, and traumatic events, in impacting the change in CFC and its outcome

behaviors. The model also takes into account the feedback loop between outcome

behaviors, their consequences, and subsequent decision-making processes in shaping

CFC (Joireman et al., 2006).

The ability and tendency to consider future consequences have implications in

youth development. It is associated with reduced alcohol, tobacco, and drug consump-

tion (Adams & Nettle, 2009; Keough et al., 1999), increased self-control, and decreased

impulsivity (Joireman et al., 2003), as well as decreased youth delinquency (Modecki,

2008). Contrastingly, adolescents with lower CFC are at higher risks of alcohol abuse

(Mckay et al., 2013) and aggression (Moore & Dahlen, 2008).

Furthermore, CFC has a significant impact on physical wellbeing. A cross-sectional

study found that there is a positive, significant relationship between CFC and health-

related attitudes (Rappange et al., 2009). Those who score high in CFC are more likely

to exercise (van Beek et al., 2013) and sleep better (Peters et al., 2005).

Researches have noted substantive changes across the lifespan on time preferences,

with children and adolescents being generally more present-focused and reporting