An Examination of the Importance of Strain in the Cannabis Gateway Effect
| Date | 01 August 2018 |
| Author | James C. McCutcheon,Stephen J. Watts |
| Published date | 01 August 2018 |
| DOI | 10.1177/0306624X17729433 |
| Subject Matter | Articles |
research-article2017
Article
International Journal of
Offender Therapy and
An Examination of the
Comparative Criminology
2018, Vol. 62(11) 3603 –3617
Importance of Strain in the
© The Author(s) 2017
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Cannabis Gateway Effect
https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X17729433
DOI: 10.1177/0306624X17729433
journals.sagepub.com/home/ijo
James C. McCutcheon1 and Stephen J. Watts1
Abstract
Gateway theory has been the source of much debate in both the research literature
and public policy. Support for gateway sequencing has been mixed, especially in
research that has considered the role of criminological variables in the etiology
of substance use. For example, limited prior research has observed as important
in gateway sequencing the effects of severe stressors. Data from the National
Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health are utilized to test gateway theory
and examine whether severe stressors affect the relationship between frequency of
cannabis use and later use of other illicit drugs (OIDs). Findings suggest that while
frequency of cannabis use does increase the likelihood of later use of OIDs, this
relationship may be the result of the common cause of experiencing severe stress.
Implications of the findings are discussed.
Keywords
gateway, cannabis, illicit drugs, general strain theory, Add Health
Introduction
Understanding Gateway Theory
The use of illicit substances from adolescence into adulthood has been the subject of
much debate in the United States (Blanco et al., 2014; Murray, Morrison, Henquet, &
Di Forti, 2007; Secades-Villa, García-Rodríguez, Jin, Wang, & Blanco, 2015).
Various theoretical paradigms have been tested and used to explain the risk factors for
continued use from adolescence into adulthood (de Wit, 1996; Fergusson, Horwood,
1The University of Memphis, TN, USA
Corresponding Author:
Stephen J. Watts, Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice, The University of Memphis, 311
McCord Hall, Memphis, TN 38152-3530, USA.
Email: sjwatts@memphis.edu
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International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 62(11)
Lynskey, & Madden, 2003; Jessor & Jessor, 1980; Kandel, 1975). One such explana-
tion that has been a highly discussed topic among scholars and policy makers is the
gateway hypothesis, which suggests that the sequential use of alcohol and tobacco,
followed by cannabis, is associated with an increased likelihood of the subsequent
use of illicit opioids, depressants, and stimulants (Degenhardt et al., 2010; Ellgren,
Spano, & Hurd, 2007; Grau et al., 2007; Kandel, 1975, 1978, 1984; Kandel, Davies,
Karus, & Yamaguchi, 1986; Kandel, Yamaguchi, & Chen, 1992; Van Ours, 2003;
Yamaguchi & Kandel, 1984a, 1984b). Several studies have examined and found asso-
ciations between cannabis and subsequent use of other illicit drugs (OIDs; Agrawal,
Neale, Prescott, & Kendler, 2004; Fergusson, Boden, & Horwood, 2006; Fergusson
& Horwood, 2000; Khan et al., 2013; O’Donnell & Clayton, 1982; Secades-Villa
et al., 2015; Van Ours, 2003).
Empirical support notwithstanding, much of the findings for the gateway effect
have been contested. Research critical of the gateway effect cites data limitations, lack
of cultural considerations, and potential spuriousness (Golub & Johnson, 2002; Morral,
McCaffrey, & Paddock, 2002). Research has adopted further utilization of crimino-
logical theory, cultural context, genetic traits, and social status (Golub & Johnson,
2002). Empirical consideration for licit and illicit drug sequencing continues, with
scholars accounting for other theoretical and sociocultural factors (Choo, Roh, &
Robinson, 2008; Degenhardt, Hall, & Lynskey, 2001; Fergusson & Horwood, 2000;
Hall & Lynskey, 2005; Rebellon & Van Gundy, 2006; Secades-Villa et al., 2015; van
Gundy & Rebellon, 2010).
The central assumption of the gateway hypothesis is the temporal sequence where
the initiation of one substance is associated with an increased risk to use another sub-
stance (Kandel, 2002; Mayet, Legleye, Falissard, & Chau, 2012). Importantly, an ado-
lescent who initiates the use of one substance, such as cannabis, will fall subject to this
gateway sequence, as that individual will hold a higher risk of using other illicit sub-
stances. Recently, however, behavioral and mental health problems (Degenhardt et al.,
2009) have shown to lead to later use. A study by Degenhardt et al. (2009) concluded
that early drug initiation is not strongly predictive of later use, unless adolescents have
mental health concerns putting them at greater risk of later OID use. Sociodemographics
and environmental risk factors have also shown to have an impact with this hypothe-
sis. A study by Fergusson and Horwood (1997) uncovered that initial cannabis use and
later OID use can be explained through social disadvantage, adverse peer relations,
and childhood adversity (Fergusson & Horwood, 1997, 2000; Yamaguchi & Kandel,
1984a, 1984b). Other factors that have been studied include, but are not limited to,
exposure to opportunity through peer drug use (Wagner & Anthony, 2002), race and
ethnicity, and economic measures (Secades-Villa et al., 2015). Some of these risk fac-
tors can be seen as stressors, which can be associated with deviant behaviors, such as
drug initiation and later use. Furthermore, criminological theories such as strain as
well as factors including social status, genetics, and cultural contexts have all shown
the possibility to render away much of the gateway effect (Golub & Johnson, 2002;
Measham & Shiner, 2009; Peele & Brodsky, 1997; Rebellon & Van Gundy, 2006; van
Gundy & Rebellon, 2010).
McCutcheon and Watts
3605
The Importance of Strain
Scholars have investigated various risk factors that can lead to illicit drug use, including
genetic variation (Van den Bree et al., 1998), family environment (DiClemente et al.,
2001), and community factors (Lillie-Blanton, Anthony, & Schuster, 1993).1 In addi-
tion, stressors have been examined in association with drug misuse and abuse. One
theoretical basis for the importance of stressors lies within the theoretical paradigm of
strain. General strain theory, proposed by Robert Agnew (1992), is an individual-level,
social-psychological explanation of deviance. General strain theory argues there are
three types of strain: failure to achieve culturally valued goals, loss of positively valued
stimuli, and the presentation of noxious stimuli (Agnew, 1992). Experiencing these
types of strain in daily life can increase criminality. General strain theory proposes that
strains are connected to criminal acts through negative affective states, including anger,
depression, fear, and anxiety. These negative affective states, brought on through stress-
ors in everyday life, lead to actions to correct or alleviate negative emotions and strains.
Strains or stressors can cause individuals to participate in corrective action, such as
illicit substance use to attenuate the negative emotions that can result from stress. These
strains have consistently been shown to lead to deviance, including drug misuse and
abuse (Agnew, 1992, 2001; Agnew & White, 1992; Boardman, Finch, Ellison, Williams,
& Jackson, 2001; Carson, Sullivan, Cochran, & Lersch, 2008; Cloward & Ohlin, 1960;
Cohen, 1955; Elliot, Huizinga, & Menard, 1989; Ford & McCutcheon, 2012; Hoffmann
& Su, 1997; Merton, 1938; Neff & Waite, 2007; Schroeder & Ford, 2012; Schulenberg,
Bachman, O’Malley, & Johnston, 1994; Slocum, 2010; Watts & McNulty, 2013).
In the context of the gateway hypothesis, strain, such as stressors related to school,
family, and so on, can lead to corrective action or deviancy in the form of drug use. In this
way, the link from cannabis initiation to later OID use is perhaps stronger for those expe-
riencing strain as they seek to continue to correct for negative emotions. Those who do
not experience these stressors will be less likely to further engage in corrective actions,
such as future OID use. Importantly, there have been limited studies that test the impact
of strain in conjunction with patterns of drug sequencing, particularly gateway theory
(Peele & Brodsky, 1997; Rebellon & Van Gundy, 2006; van Gundy & Rebellon, 2010).
In the context of the gateway hypothesis, previous researchers have cited concerns
with under sampling of illicit drug users2 (Golub & Johnson, 2002). The present study
utilizes data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add
Health), which is a nationally representative sample of the United States. While prior
researchers have utilized Add Health data to observe gateway effects, these previous
studies have largely focused on genetic and developmental pathways, rather than the
focus of the current study, strain (Cleveland & Wiebe, 2008; Lessem et al., 2006).
Specifically, we test one of the key components of the gateway hypothesis, that
frequency of cannabis use is associated with an increased likelihood of later OID use,
and whether strain effects this relationship using a representative sample of American
adolescents. We hypothesize that there will be a positive relationship between canna-
bis and OIDs (Hypothesis 1), but that this relationship will be weakened when account-
ing for strain (Hypothesis 2).
3606
International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative...
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