Adult Consequences of Bully Victimization

• Date: 01 October 2017
• Published date: 01 October 2017
• DOI: 10.1177/1541204016650004
• Subject Matter: Articles

Article

Adult Consequences of Bully

Victimization: Are Children

or Adolescents More

Vulnerable to the

Victimization Experience?

Chrystina Y. Hoffman

1

, Matthew D. Phillips

2

,

Leah E. Daigle

1

, and Michael G. Turner

2

Abstract

Although evidence exists that bully victimizations are related to a range of negative outcomes later

in the life course, existing research has largely ignored the timing of the victimization experience.

Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997, the present study uses pro-

pensity score matching to investigate the adult consequences of victims experiencing repeated

bullying in childhood, adolescence, or both developmental periods. Individuals victimized as

children reported higher instances of arrests, convictions, violence, and substance use than child

nonvictims. The results point to the importance of implementing effective prevention programs

early in the life course.

Keywords

bullying, victimization, life course, consequences

Bullying remains a significant public concern among school-aged youth. Identified as repetitive

abusive behaviors with specific intent to harm the victim and accompanied by an imbalance of

power between the offender and the victim (Olweus, 1993), prevalence rates of bully victimization

remain high and significantly vary across age (Juvonen, Graham, & Schuster, 2003; Nansel et al.,

2001). As evidence, research has documented that bullying is most prevalent in younger school-aged

children where data indicate that approximately 20%of students in elementary schools report being

victimized by a bully (Dake, Price, & Telljohann, 2003; Kochenderfer & Ladd, 1996; Ma, Stewin, &

Mah, 2001). Prevalence rates of bullying tend to decrease as students age into middle and high

1

Department of Criminal Justice and Criminology, Andrew Young School of Policy Studies, Georgia State University, Atlanta,

GA, USA

2

Department of Criminal Justice and Criminology, University of North Carolina–Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA

Corresponding Author:

Leah E. Daigle, Department of Criminal Justice and Criminology, Andrew Young School of Policy Studies, Georgia State

University, 1224 Urban Life, PO Box 4018, Atlanta, GA 30302, USA.

Email: ldaigle@gsu.edu

Youth Violence and JuvenileJustice

2017, Vol. 15(4) 441-464

ªThe Author(s) 2016

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DOI: 10.1177/1541204016650004

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school, where national data have revealed that 8.5%of students were bullied ‘‘sometimes,’’ and

8.4%of students were bullied once a week or more (Nansel et al., 2001). A recent meta-analysis

conducted by Modecki, Minchin, Harbaugh, Guerra, and Runions (2014) estimates victimization

prevalence rates at 15.2%for cyberbullying and 36%for traditional bullying for adolescents (i.e.,

12- to 18-year-olds).

The growth in public interest surrounding bullying has ushered in an area of research focused on

the effects that victims of bullying experience later in the life course. Research has documented a

variety of adverse consequences related to individuals experiencing bully victimization. Victims of

bullies have reported experiencing maladjustment problems such as fighting and other violent

behaviors, substance use, poor relationships with peers, increased loneliness, low self-esteem or

self-concept, and lacking the ability to make friends (Juvonen et al., 2003; Kochenderfer & Ladd,

1996; Ma et al., 2001; Nansel et al., 2 001; Valdebenito, Ttofi, & Eisn er, 2015). Compared to

nonvictims, victims were also more likely to report higher levels of anxiety, report a significantly

greater number of physical health symptoms, engage in avoidance behaviors, suffer more significant

depressive symptoms, and report severe suicidal ideations (Dake et al., 2003; Juvonen et al., 2003;

Kochenderfer & Ladd, 1996; Lereya, Copeland, Costello, & Wolke, 2015; Ma et al., 2001; Nansel

et al., 2001; Sigurdson, Undheim, Wallander, Lydersen, & Sund, 2015; Takizawa, Maughan, &

Arseneault, 2014; Turner, Exum, Brame, & Holt, 2013).

Although important contributions to the knowledge base have been made regarding the conse-

quences of bullying, significant gaps in the research have yet to be addressed. One question that

research has yet to explore is whether the timing of the victimization experience (i.e., childhood vs.

adolescence) has similar (or different) consequences of individuals once they reach adulthood. That

is, are children who experience bully victimization more vulnerable to its effects and therefore

experience greater levels of adverse consequences in adulthood compared to adolescents who

experience bully victimization? Based on the tenets of life-course theory, it is expected that the

timing of bullying victimization will play a role in its consequences. According to this perspective,

events that occur during a person’s life have the capacity to influence the life trajectory (Elder,

1994)—these key turning points may be potent enough to shape a person’s life long term. Bullying

victimization occurring during early childhood may be more impactful, given that this develop-

mental time period is when children are developing key characteristics that will shape their future

interactions (Clausen, 1991).

As such, understanding whether the consequences of bullying victimization are different for

children and adolescents is important because if differences do occur, effective interventions focus-

ing on the physical, emotional, and psychological trauma associated with the experience can be more

efficiently targeted toward a particular age-group. Better understanding of the long-term conse-

quences of bullying can also aid in deciding when and how to intervene in response to bullying

victimization. The purpose of the present study is to fill this void in the literature and investigate

whether adult consequences of bully victimization differ depending on whether the individual was

victimized as a child or as an adolescent. To contextualize these questions, the literature investigat-

ing the effects of bully victimization is reviewed below.

Bully Victimization Over the Life Course

As identified above, prevalence rates of bully victimization vary over the life course. On the

individual level, it follows that there exists variability in one’s probability of experiencing a

bully victimization. Some individuals might be victimized in childhood, some individuals might

be victimized in adolescence, and some may be victimized over both developmental periods.

Since victimization may occur at different points during the life course, it is important to

442 Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 15(4)