Adolescent Domestic Violence Referrals and Adverse Childhood Experiences: Race and Sex Differences

• Published date: 01 April 2024
• DOI: http://doi.org/10.1177/15412040231219997
• Author: Shelby Gilbreath,Yusen Cheng,Vitoria de Francisco Lopes,Abigail Novak
• Date: 01 April 2024
• Subject Matter: Articles

Article

Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice

2024, Vol. 22(2) 90–107

© The Author(s) 2023

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DOI: 10.1177/15412040231219997

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Adolescent Domestic Violence

Referrals and Adverse

Childhood Experiences: Race

and Sex Differences

Shelby Gilbreath

1

, Yusen Cheng

1

, Vitoria de Francisco Lopes

1

, and

Abigail Novak

1



Abstract

Following the implementation of mandatory arrest policies for domestic violence in the 1990s, the

number of youth –particularly girls –referred to juvenile justice systems for domestic violence

(DV) increased. Though adolescent DV perpetration and adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)

share many of the same outcomes, and youth DV perpetration is thought to occur more fre-

quently in abusive home environments, the link between ACEs and DV referral for juveniles is

under-examined. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between ACEs and

DV referral using data from the Florida Department of Juvenile Justice, as well as identify gender

and race/ethnicity differences in referral risk by ACEs. According to results, ACEs were asso-

ciated with DV referral and this relationship was stronger for girls. Latino/a youth also expe-

rienced the greatest risk of referral relative to ACEs exposure. Implications for policy makers and

practitioners are discussed.

Keywords

adolescents, domestic violence, juvenile justice, adverse childhood experiences

Domestic violence (DV) has become an increasingly used charge for juveniles entering the

juvenile justice system in recent years (Eckstein, 2004). Though research on domestic violence

and the criminal justice system often focuses on adults (see Sherman & Berk, 1984;Wilt & Olson,

1996), policy changes and the “tough on crime”movement of the 1990s and early 2000s led to a

shift in domestic violence policing to include physical violence from children directed towards

caregivers (Eckstein, 2004;Howard, 2011;Ibabe & Jaureguizar, 2010). Existing research suggests

adolescent family violence builds over time, starting with verbal abuse and sometimes escalating

1

Department of Criminal Justice and Legal Studies, University of Mississippi, University, MS, USA

Corresponding Author:

Shelby Gilbreath, Department of Criminal Justice and Legal Studies, University of Mississippi, 303 Hedleston Hall,

University, MS 38677, USA.

Email: sgilbrea@go.olemiss.edu

to physical abuse (Eckstein, 2004;Howard, 2011). Though not as common as domestic violence

calls involving adults only, research suggests a substantial percentage of police calls for family

violence incidents involve children engaging in violence towards parents (Howard, 2011),

making adolescent domestic violence involvement an important but understudied area of

research.

Though research examining adolescent family violence is limited, existing research suggests

violence often occurs in the cotext of existing child abuse and neglect and among children who

have experienced chronic exposure to traumatic environments (Simmons et al., 2018). Adverse

childhood experiences (ACEs) are traumatic childhood experiences that negatively impact ad-

olescents’physical, mental, and behavioral health (Boullier & Blair, 2018;Felitti et al., 1998).

ACEs can range from maltreatment (i.e., abuse, neglect) to household dysfunction (substance

abuse, intimate partner violence, criminality of parent) (Bomysoad & Francis, 2020;Boullier &

Blair, 2018;Felitti et al., 1998;Leza et al., 2021;Scully et al., 2020). ACEs are quite common, and

the CDC (2022) reports that about 61% of adults experienced one ACE before the age of 18. ACEs

have also been shown to inf‌luence behavior among adolescents and are associated with both

delinquent behavior and justice system contact (Duke et al., 2010;Fagan & Novak, 2018;Leban &

Gibson, 2020;Perez et al., 2018).

Though research suggests ACEs are associated with both delinquent behavior and juveni le

justice system involvement (Fagan & Novak, 2018) and that adolescents who are referred to

justice systems for family violence are more likely to report experiencing child maltreatment

(Simmons et al., 2018), limited research has examined the relationship between ACEs and

domestic violence referrals for juveniles, as well as whether racial and sex differences are apparent

in relationships. This gap in the literature is important, as existing research suggests girls may be

more likely to be referred to the juvenile justice system for domestic violence (Durose et al., 2005),

and race, ethnicity and sex have all been found to be associated with differences in outcomes

associated with ACEs (Fagan & Novak, 2018;Leban & Gibson, 2020). The purpose of this study

is to contribute to existing knowledge on youth referred to juvenile justice systems for domestic

violence by examining the relationship between ACEs and DV referrals as well as race and sex

differences in this relationship.

Literature Review

Domestic Violence Involving Children

Following the changes in domestic violence arrest laws in the 1990s, prior to which domestic

violence was typically addressed via mediation or separation, the number of youth arrested for

domestic violence increased across the country (Andersen et al., 2011). This suggests changes

in domestic violence processing for adults also led to an expansion of the practical def‌inition of

domestic violence to include violence perpetrated by youth toward family members (Andersen

et al., 2011;Durose et al., 2005). This increase was particularly evident among girls, and rates of

domestic violence referrals for girls increased at greater rates than those of boys (Andersen et al.,

2011). Though some argue these increases ref‌lect changing behaviors of girls, most rigorous

research indicates changes in referral rates ref‌lect changes in processing and “charging up”that

uniquely impacted girls (Andersen et al., 2011). Prior to changes in domestic violence policies,

researchers argue girls who experienced familial conf‌lict were referred to the juvenile justice

system for incorrigibility or other similar status offenses (Andersen et al., 2011). Following the

changes, though, girls who experienced conf‌lict in the home are argued to have been referred for

domestic violence, ref‌lecting an increase in charge severity and behavioral change on the part of

the justice system rather than a change in girls’behaviors (Andersen et al., 2011;Gavazzi et al.,

Gilbreath et al. 91