Academic Entrepreneurship in Sometimes Hostile Environments: James Buchanan and the Virginia School of Political Economy.

• Author: Boettke, Peter J.

Among the class of scholars who are fortunate enough to win the Nobel Prize, James Buchanan clearly stands out. Although Buchanan is well known for his work in public finance, public choice, and constitutional political economy, even the most cursory knowledge of his career reveals that he was a scholar who was often out of step with the elite of the profession. Buchanan's career spanned the postwar era, and he was one of the emerging voices of the resurgence of political economy in response to the neoclassical synthesis of Keynesian macroeconomics and market-failure microeconomics.

After attending graduate school at the University of Chicago, he never left the American South for more than a year. After working for a few years at the University of Tennessee and Florida State, he moved to Charlottesville to join the faculty at the University of Virginia. Following a brief and, in his view, traumatic year in Westwood at the University of California-Los Angeles, he landed at Virginia Polytechnic Institute. He would end his career at George Mason University, the recently independent university that began as a branch campus of the University of Virginia, which he had left fifteen years prior.

In this article we study the career of James Buchanan by focusing on the perspective of academic entrepreneurship and on his (and others') efforts at institution building (1)--that is, the creation of academic spaces for scholars to work and for graduate students to be trained in their mold. In challenging the prevailing orthodoxy of his era, he engaged in various efforts in academic entrepreneurship to escape difficult, even hostile, situations. (2) Over the course of his career, Buchanan held academic appointments both within and outside economics departments: he was not only department chair but also vice president and president of several professional associations. (3) And, most importantly, he had a direct hand in the construction and management of research and educational centers at the University of Virginia (UVA), Virginia Polytechnic Institute (VPI), and George Mason University (GMU). (4) We provide a historical context behind the trajectory outlined above: the career setbacks, the responses to those setbacks, and the intellectual context of Buchanan's academic entrepreneurship. In short, we show how James Buchanan and the Virginia School of Political Economy were successful despite operating in methodologically and ideologically hostile environments. (5) In doing so, we provide both an intellectual and an institutional history of the Virginia School, and contribute to a growing literature dealing with Buchanan's academic entrepreneurship in developing a "creative community" (e.g., Medema 2011), "liberal political economy" (e.g., Wagner 2017), and an "economics of natural equals" (e.g., Levy and Peart 2020).

In the following section we begin by giving readers an introduction to what we see as the Buchanan project, before concentrating on the UVA years. In the third section we focus on the VPI years, Buchanan's analysis of higher education, and his increasing distance from the mainstream of economics. Next, we focus on the GMU years and Buchanan's perception of the role of the academic entrepreneur. In the final section we consider Buchanan's view of the efforts of classical liberals to carry on the project.

The Market Maker in the Market for Ideas

We found ourselves in a position where we could, indeed, act as academic entrepreneurs.

--James Buchanan, "The Virginia Renaissance in Political Economy" (2006)

While in graduate school at the University of Chicago in the aftermath of World War II, Buchanan and his classmate G. Warren Nutter shared a sense of frustration with the growing loss of the grand tradition of classical political economy as represented by Adam Smith. In the late 1950s, Buchanan found himself on the same faculty as Nutter at the University of Virginia, and the two decided to establish a unique academic entrepreneurial venture. With the support of William Duren, dean of the faculties, and Colgate Darden, president of UVA, Buchanan and Nutter established the Thomas Jefferson Center for Studies in Political Economy and Social Philosophy at the University of Virginia. (6) In a university newsletter describing the founding of that center, Buchanan (1958) explained that "the Jefferson Center strives to carry on the honorable tradition of 'political economy.'" He wrote:

Political economists stress the technical economic principles that one must understand in order to assess alternative arrangements for promoting peaceful cooperation and productive specialization among free men. Yet political economists go further and frankly try to bring out into the open the philosophical issues that necessarily underlie all discussions of the appropriate functions of government and all proposed economic policy measures. (1958, 5) Although the location would change and figures would come and go from the Virginia School of Political Economy, we argue the way to understand the Buchanan project is contained in the words above.

Buchanan and Nutter were compelled to act entrepreneurially in the field of higher education because of the emerging post-World War II hegemony of the Keynesian consensus and the idea that economics was a form of social engineering, in which economists could offer technical advice to benevolent decision makers in order to steer the economy in the right direction. "We sensed that economics had shifted, and was shifting, away from its classical foundations as a component of a comprehensive moral philosophy, and that technique was replacing substance," Buchanan would write in reflecting on that time. "We concurred in the view that some deliberately organized renewal of the classical emphasis was a project worthy of dreams" (Buchanan 2001, 51).

At the time, Nutter often referred to their effort as "saving the books" of the grand tradition of political economy against the onslaught of a new era of technocratic scientism that disregarded the past. Buchanan, although respectful of past thinkers from Adam Smith to Frank Knight, did not really conceive of the project as one of purely conserving past knowledge but rather as a forward-facing research agenda. Whereas Nutter invoked "saving the books," Buchanan would later adopt the phrase "dare to be different" (Buchanan 1962b). He used this phrase to capture the fact that the training and development of the center's graduate students and the ongoing research of the faculty (7) was decidedly and intentionally different from that of others in the economic profession--the center was exposed to pre-Santuelsonian and pre-Keynesian political economy. Buchanan encouraged the center's scholars and students to build upon this more classical tradition in their own original research. Although he did not adopt the "dare to be different" motto until later, this independent spirit was already evident in the founding documents of the Thomas Jefferson Center and present in later iterations of the Virginia School of Political Economy.

Buchanan's conclusion, that the best way forward was by building on the best ideas of the past, can be seen throughout his career in a variety of contexts. During the same time period as the Thomas Jefferson Center, but in an explicitly ideological context, Buchanan responded to a memo soliciting his opinion about the Mont Pelerin Society (MPS): "What is now needed, most of all, is a genuine reconfirmation of the purpose and ideals of the society, the maintenance of an international community of libertarian scholars" (1962a, 2). (8) "The society," he continues, "has properly refrained from partisan political activity. This attitude should be maintained. The appropriate role of the society is that of ensuring the survival of a set of ideas and ideals, once widely honored, but now held only by a minority of intellectual leaders in the Western World, and by even fewer elsewhere" (Buchanan 1962a, 2). Buchanan believed that the success of MPS and its goal of a sustainable liberalism required that the new generation of libertarian scholars move beyond the mere maintenance of an intellectual tradition:

Survival is not enough, however, and sterility is the central result if a deliberate clinging to old-fashioned cliches and concepts is fostered. Legitimate survival of the time-honored ideals of the free society can be achieved only through a continuously critical examination of the bases of libertarian doctrine, along with a tolerance of change in the structure of libertarian thought. Perhaps most of all, the society should promote and encourage critical reflection on social issues, for surely genuinely critical analysis must reveal the fallacies that confound orthodox intellectual opinion in all countries. (Buchanan 1962a, 2) Buchanan warns not only of the dangers of intellectual dogmatism but also of the fads and fashions of the "professional libertarian" class who threatened MPS with becoming little more than "congenial gatherings" and an opportunity to enjoy "the sophistication of European life" (Buchanan 1962a, 1). The more clerical liberals were liable to turn off the unanointed and disappoint or disillusion the more successful liberal scholars, especially among the younger cohort for whom Buchanan would emerge as a main spokesman within MPS, where he eventually rose to serve as the president (1984-1986).

The enterprise of the Thomas Jefferson Center back at the University of Virginia took off in the 1960s. Consider the research output of just the one year, when Buchanan and Tullock published their landmark book, The Calculus of Consent (1962). During this same year Nutter also published his major study on Soviet economic performance, Growth of Industrial Production in the Soviet Union (1962), which presciently analyzed the weakness of the Soviet economy, (9) and Leland Yeager published an edited volume, In Search of a Monetary...