Criminology & Public Policy

Publisher:: Wiley
Publication date:: 2021-02-01

ISBN:: 1538-6473

Issue Number

No. 22-4, November 2023

Latest documents

An examination of harm reduction strategies in Oxycodone and Adderall buyer feedback on AlphaBay
Research summary Darknet marketplaces (DNMs) are global digital marketplaces used primarily to buy and sell illicit drugs online. High rates of adulterated substances have contributed to the creation of harm reduction policies by DNM administrators to address growing rates of overdose worldwide. This paper explores the extent to which harm reduction occurs in buyer feedback of Adderall and Oxycodone purchased on AlphaBay and how these comments are impacted by AlphaBay's administrator‐led “harm reduction” policy. This study finds that harm reduction strategies are present in buyer feedback of Oxycodone and Adderall pills, but AlphaBay's policy has very little impact on the preexisting harm reduction communication within buyer feedback. Policy implications International policy proposals have placed emphasis on addressing the overdose crisis through harm reduction programs that provide people who use drugs with the necessary services and resources to buy and use drugs safely. There have been very few proposals that have considered how these programs can address the unique setting of buying and using drugs purchased on DNMs. Communication occurring among DNM buyers reveals how harm reduction strategies are being employed by users purchasing drugs from DNMs. In particular, these findings offer insight into the shared experiences of drug buyers in anonymous settings and the strategies they are using to protect one another from overdose and other unwanted side effects often caused by adulterated substances. Understanding these strategies highlights the ways in which street‐based harm reduction programs can extend their services to online environments to assist buyers with making safe and informed decisions when using substances purchased online.
Dating hot spot to fraud hot spot: Targeting the social characteristics of romance fraud victims in England and Wales
Research Summary We found that romance fraud was rising year‐on‐year across every region in England and Wales, increasing 55% during the 3 years between October 2018 and October 2021. Fifty percent of all the romance fraud victims in the period resided in 17% of the places where romance fraud had occurred. A total of 439 locations (outward postcode areas) were identified as the “power few” in the first year of the data set. Of these 439 locations, 162 of them recurred in both of the following years, becoming chronic “hot spot” locations containing more than one in six of all reported romance fraud victims. The demography of victims in repeat locations differed considerably, but hot spots were more frequently predominantly populated by less affluent populations. Policy Implications We conclude that the current national one‐size‐fits‐all fraud prevention approach may not be the most efficient or effective way to reach those victims who most require crime prevention advice. The National Fraud Intelligence Bureau, based in the City of London Police, could adopt a tailored approach to providing preventative information to local police forces based on the year‐to‐year patterns in crime and the associated intelligence provided by sociodemographic data sources such as Acorn.
The effect of online ad campaigns on DDoS‐attacks: A cross‐national difference‐in‐differences quasi‐experiment
Research Summary European law enforcement agencies have begun to use targeted online ad campaigns to raise cybercrime awareness among at‐risk populations. Despite their rapid proliferation, there is little research to support their efficacy and effectiveness. This study uses a quasi‐experimental difference‐in‐differences design to evaluate the effect of seven campaigns deployed in 2021 and 2022 on the volume of (distributed) denial‐of‐service or (D)DoS‐attacks recorded in six European countries: Denmark, Finland, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and Portugal. The results show mixed effects, suggesting that the campaigns are not clearly effective in reducing DDoS‐attacks in the short term. Policy Implications Law enforcement has partly justified the use of targeted online ad campaigns on the premise that they reduce DDoS‐attacks. However, this study shows that the evidence in this regard is inconclusive. If public support for the use of such campaigns is to be secured in the long term, law enforcement will likely need to rely on stronger arguments. The effect of this type of campaigns needs to be further investigated.
“I knew it was a scam”: Understanding the triggers for recognizing romance fraud
Research Summary This article investigates the contributing factors (or triggers) to a realization of romance fraud victimization, based on 1015 reports lodged with Scamwatch (Australian online reporting portal for fraud) between July 2018 and July 2019 (inclusive). The article examines the free text narrative of each report to propose five discernible trigger categories: further requests for money; characteristics of communications; verification checks; an offender's action(s); and being told by a third party. Policy Implications Based on a comprehensive understanding of these five categories, the article advocates for broader messaging approaches to encompass financial literacy and well‐being, cyberliteracy and critical thinking skills, cybersecurity practices, and respectful and healthy relationships. Leveraging the use of these wider education and awareness campaigns could improve recognition of romance fraud. Importantly, it is suggested that banks and other financial institutions are in a strong position to focus their efforts on some of these broader messages to effect positive change.
Assessing nation‐state‐sponsored cyberattacks using aspects of Situational Crime Prevention
Research Summary This study utilized a quantitative analysis of 246 cyberattack incidents reported in the Extremist CyberCrime Database to identify significant predictors of nation‐state‐sponsored cyberattacks relative to those performed by non‐nation‐state‐sponsored ideological actors. Clarke and Newman's Situational Crime Prevention framework for terrorism was used to identify differential opportunities to successfully affect targets on the basis of tools, weapons, and the ability to access targets in online settings. The analysis noted nation‐state‐sponsored attacks were less likely to use high‐visibility attack methods and more likely to utilize attack methods leading to data breaches. In addition, they were more likely to target state governments and military entities relative to ideological actors. Policy Implications Nation‐state attacks are more difficult to identify or mitigate while in process, requiring a more robust national cybersecurity policy framework to be implemented that moves beyond current practices. There is a need to better utilize all aspects of government, from legislation to grant funding, in order to deter cyberattacks from continuing into the future.
Minor‐focused sextortion by adult strangers: A crime script analysis of newspaper and court cases
Summary Sextortion is a form of image‐based sexual abuse in which an offender threatens to distribute sexually explicit images, videos, or information to gain victim compliance. In some sextortion incidents involving minor children, offenders are adult strangers who coerce victims into self‐producing child sexually abusive materials (CSAM). Despite the growing concern regarding minor victims of sextortion, there is a lack of empirical investigation of adult offenders who exclusively target minor children for the production of CSAM and the steps and decisions these offenders take to commit sextortion. Utilizing a sample of 130 minor‐focused sextortion cases gathered from news media and court documents, the current study employed crime script analysis and inductive qualitative methodology to investigate how adult offenders commit sextortion. The results indicated that adult offenders specifically targeting minor children move through several crime scripts: preparation, entry, instrumental actions, crime commission, and exit. Policy Implications Minor‐focused sextortion perpetrated by adult offenders is executed in stages, each with accompanying preventive solutions. Investing in education that teaches youth to recognize grooming, develops safety practices online, and removes barriers to reporting should be a priority for schools and parents. Increased adoption of technology and policies that would allow social media platforms to detect CSAM, remove fraudulent accounts, and streamline reporting would also disrupt these crimes.
Hydra: Lessons from the world's largest darknet market
Research Summary We present a comprehensive description of Hydra, the largest darknet marketplace in the world until its shutdown in April 2022. We document the main features of Hydra such as dead‐drop delivery, feedback and reputation system, escrow, and dispute resolution. Using data scraped from the platform, we quantitatively examine the scale and the structure of the marketplace. We find that it has been highly competitive, geographically covering at least 69% of the Russian population and trading a wide variety of drugs, while also allowing the wholesale trade of drugs and precursors. The dead‐drop delivery system used on Hydra was expensive, as the courier costs comprised a substantial proportion of the sale price of drugs on Hydra. We contribute to the research on drug cryptomarkets by studying an unprecedentedly large non‐Western marketplace that existed substantially longer than any other known darknet market. Policy Implications The phenomenon of Hydra shows that shut‐down policies applied to darknet marketplaces have a large effect and implicitly shape the whole drug market. Without these policies, a pervasive digitalization of the drug trade can occur. The major cost of allowing marketplaces to grow is the probable increase in the consumption of illegal drugs due to convenience for consumers and facilitated cooperation between suppliers. This cost must be weighed against the potential benefits, including a higher quality of drugs, a decrease in potential violence, and the incentives for a large marketplace to self‐regulate. The case of Hydra also suggests the relevance of financial regulation to limit the growth of darknet marketplaces.
Issue Information
Why do young people start and continue with ethical hacking? A qualitative study on individual and social aspects in the lives of ethical hackers
Research Summary This qualitative interview study examined individual and social aspects in the lives of 15 hackers who started with ethical hacking before the age of 18. We examined what motivated and stimulated them to start with ethical hacking and how and why they continued. Results show that individual aspects, such as an early interest in ICT (Information and Communication Technology), the motivation to make systems more secure, and thinking of reporting vulnerabilities as a moral duty, contribute to the initiation of ethical hacking. Social aspects, such as role models, mainly play a role in the further development of the ethical hacking career. For example, peers, parents, friends, and hacker communities have a motivating and stimulating effect on young ethical hackers. Similarly, positive reactions from public and private system owners can further stimulate the development and self‐image of ethical hackers. Policy Implications In contrast to criminal hackers, ethical hackers improve cybersecurity, for example, by reporting weaknesses or errors in computer systems. Nowadays, an increasing number of public and private organizations around the world are creating cybersecurity policies and practices around ethical hacking. The interest in hacking usually arises at an early age, making it important to gain knowledge about what stimulates and motivates young people to start and continue with ethical hacking, to inform these policies and practices. Our results show that recognition and reactions from system owners are important in the ethical hacking career. Our recommendations based on these results could stimulate more young people to take the ethical path. Simultaneously, this increases the security of public and private organizations, reducing opportunities for criminal hackers.